VIRTUAL JEWISH MUSEUM

Revolt and Roman conquest

Coins are remarkable remnants of this cataclysmic event. Both the 'rebels' and the Roman administration created these artifacts that have survived. The Romans were anxious to discourage revolts in their far-flung empire. The Jews were fighting for their Temple and their country's identity.

Half Shekel Year One

Half a shekel was the Biblically required amount for the annual Temple payment. Until the Revolt, this was satisfied with circulating foreign coins, especially the Tyrian half-shekel, or simple pieces of silver. Issuing silver coins was a major political statement. The first year went through a few variations until the basic design was determined. A 3 - lobed pomegranate branch on the obverse with 'Jerusalem the Holy', and a chalice on the reverse with 'Half shekel' & 'Alef' for year 1.

Shekel.year 2

The full shekel, weighing about 14 grams, was a thick carefully struck coin, as much a religious artifact as it was a means of payment. The obverse continues the pomegranate design. The reverse has a newer style chalice. The inscription is now 'Shekel Yisrael' = 'Shekel of Israel'. Above the chalice appear 2 letters. From right to left they are Shin for 'Shana' (= year) and Bet for '2'. Shekels & half-shekels continued to be struck dated Year 3,4. and 5, at which time the revolt was put down.

Shekel and Half-shekel compared

Here are the shekel and half-shekel side by side. Their designs are quite consistent, especially from year 2 on. The engraving and striking are of high quality, remarkable in the midst of a war. The halves weigh about 6.8 g and the full shekels about 14 g. They are the same weight and purity of the Tyrian coins that circulated at this time. Year 1 = 66 - 67 CE.

Shekel edge

The shekel coins show an unusual feature: their edges have been hammered. This was a carefully handcrafted process giving a smooth beveled edge that rises slightly in the middle. The coins are struck very well centered. They represented the Temple and the mitzvah of supporting it.

Bronze Prutah.year 2..1360

Prutah coins were minted dated 'Year 2' and 'year 3'. These small bronze coins continued in size the style of the procurator coins. A shekel was worth at least 500 of these small change coins. The obverse shows a cup and the legend 'Year 2'. The reverse shows a grape leaf & the legend 'Freedom of Zion'. It seems patterned after a coin of Valerius Gratus. Made by a different faction of the Judean rebels. Year 2 = 67 - 68 CE.

Year 2 bronzes.Styles compared.P1060320

Different engravers produced different styles in the final product. Most are engraved carefully and struck accurately. Since this script was obsolete and not even understood by most residents, varieties are to be expected.

Year 2 bronzes. Irregular

On the other hand, some seen to be engraved poorly, with little skill or knowledge of the lettering. Unskilled workers ? or perhaps, difficult minting conditions ? These are called 'irregular' or 'barbaric'.

Bronze Prutah.Year 3.1363

This prutah reads 'Year Three'. The container is now depicted with a cover. It likely is a vessel used in the Temple service, in which ceremonial wine and water were contained. and had to be covered. Year 3 = 68 - 69 CE.

Year 3.bronze.reverse.comparedP1060321

Most year 3 prutot have a reverse inscription 'HRUT' ('freedom'). Some have the spelling found on most year 2 reverses, 'HRT' which is the same word without the vowel 'U'.

Year 3.Edges

The blank flans for coins were cast in shallow holes drilled into stone. The drill-work left a slightly concave opening which resulted in a slanted edge on the product. The wider side offered more room to hold the design. Minters were not always careful which side they used for obverse and reverse. The inconsistency resulted in varying amounts of design showing on each side of the coin.

Year 4 Bronze set

Year 4, 69 - 70 CE, produced a special set of bronze cons (in addition to the shekel coins). These were all larger and heavier than the previous prutot and may have been issued by yet another faction of the rebels. The Lulav and Etrog theme unites them, as do their legends and denominations.

Bronze year 4 Half.1367

The largest, at 26 mm, shows a pair of Lulavim & an Etrog between. Around we read 'ShNAT ARBA' (Year 4) HZI (Half). The reverse pictures a palm tree, which had come to be a symbol of Judea. Underneath are 2 baskets, presumably of dates, perhaps representing 'First Fruits'. These symbols were strongly associated with the Temple. Around: 'LeGeULT TzYON' = For Redemption of Zion. This is a change from 'Freedom ...' seen on year 2 & 3. By year 4, they were looking for help from Above. Burnt?

Bronze Year 4 Quarter.1368

The medium denomination, at about 22 mm, bears the same legends. Except that 'Year 4' is followed by 'RVIA' (= quarter). These must be denominations, but in the presence of thick silver shekels, could this bronze be valued as a half or a quarter shekel? They mention the fractions but avoid the word 'Shekel'. The 2 Lulavim are present but the Etrog has been moved to the other side of the coin.

Bronze Year 4 Eighth?.1369

This delightful coin, at about 20 mm, is the smallest in the set. It is still much larger and heavier than a prutah. The same legends are present but no denomination is mentioned. It is considered an 'Eighth'. Now we see one Lulav and 2 Etrogim, while the other side shows a chalice, or basin. The bumps and 'Pitum' on the Etrog are visible, as are berries from the Hadassim, symbolized by dots around the Lulav greens.

Bronze Year 4 Eighth.compared

These two specimens of the same coin show significant differences. The style of lettering and the style of Lulav art are different. More significant is the size and weight of the whole coin. At 18 mm in diameter, and at 3.1 g in weight, the flan on which this coin was struck is much smaller than average. It appears to be the flan of a prutah, like a procurator coin.?

Bronze Year 4.Eighth.Burnt

This specimen started out as a regular issue. But it shows significant distress. J.P. Fontanille has shown that this is one of a dozen such coins which were in a fire - very likely the fire that destroyed the Second Temple in Jerusalem in August of 70 CE, as the revolt was defeated. The heat caused softening of the metal and distortion of design. The previous 'Half' denomination may also show these symptoms.

'Shekel' of Gamla.1372

The coin on the left is a replica of a type found at Gamla, an ancient community on the Golan Heights. This rebel stronghold had its own history in the revolt. Only a handful of specimens have been found. We see a cup that resembles the shekel. The lettering is in the ancient script and hard to decipher. Shekel-sized but in bronze.

Legions.Nero

This coin was struck in Akko, known as Ptolemais ever since the Egyptian occupation, with Nero's bust on the obverse. The reverse shows the emperor plowing with an ox and a cow - official symbol of the city gaining status as a 'Roman Colony'. Behind, we see 4 legionary standards marked with their Roman numerals: III, VI, X, XII. Those were the legions gathered in the area at the start of the Revolt.

Legion.Nero.close-up

Despite wear, we can make out some of the numerals: III on the left and XII on the right. Other specimens are clearer. Between the standard staffs we see 'COL' for 'Colony'. Above, 'DIVOS CLAVD'. Nero was emperor Claudius' adopted son and on this coin the previous emperor is being deified.

Legion III

The 3rd Roman legion was named Cyrenaica, having been formed in the Roman city Cyrene in Libya. They participated in the conquest of Jerusalem in 70 CE and also in the 2nd (Bar Kochba) Revolt some 60 years later. This coin from 217 CE shows a Legion standard on which can be read 'LEG III CYR'. Diadumenian who issued it, was just a boy and ruled for less than a year.

Legion III close-up

The lettering on the standard can be read: LEG(io) III CYRE(naica).

Legion.V.1607

The fifth legion had several names, including Macedonica and Scythica. This coin is countermarked LVS and along with several other artifacts found in Israel seems to validate Scythica. They were camped in Syria, came to Judea with General Vespasian, fought at Jotapata and later at the siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE. Like most, this overstamped coin was previously worn beyond recognition. This legion was not mentioned on Nero's Ptolemais coin.

Legion VI.1608

This coin bears 2 counterstamps: LVIF = L(egio) VI F(errata) and an emperor bust. A larger faint bust is visible. Ferrata means iron ('the Iron legion'). From their base in Syria, parts of this legion participated in the beginning of the Revolt.

Legion.X.Sebast.1613a

The 10th legion is most closely associated with Judea and Jerusalem. Their monogram LXF (Legio Decima Fretensis) appears right on the neck of the emperor. The host coin is unusually clear - a coin of Domition from Sebaste. The 10th legion came from Syria with Vespasian. They camped at Jerusalem and were involved in that conquest and also Masada.

Legion.X.boar.1609

A more elaborate countermark of the 10th legion shows a Boar - one of their symbols. Above appears LFX. and below a dolphin. Sometimes another symbol, a galley, appears, and also a bust on the other side.

Legion.XII.Fulminata

The twelfth legion also came from Syria to join Roman forces in Judea. Although they experienced some defeat, they did help conquer Jerusalem. On the faint bust of the coin we see the countermark in one thin line: LXII.

Legion XV.

The fifteenth legion was named Apollinaris. This type coin dates back to Mark Anthony. Between the standards we see LEG XV signifying the legion. This is a Roman coin that pre-dates the Revolt by some decades, although they circulated for a long time. Its place here is to represent the 15th legion which was stationed in Alexandria, Egypt and brought up to Judea because of the Revolt. They captured several rebel towns before joining the assault on Jerusalem.

Capta.Titus.set.1447,1449

Most coins commemorating the Roman defeat of Judea were minted in Roman cities around the empire. A few were actually minted in the Holy Land. These were minted in Caesarea which was a Roman enclave and administrative capital of Judea. It was an official 'Colony of Rome'.

Judea Capta.Titus.1447

As expected from a Roman produced coin, the obverse shows a bust of the emperor, in this case Titus. Around is a legend meaning 'Emperor Titus Caesar'. The reverse legend reads in Greek 'Judea Captured'. Nike (goddess of victory) with foot on a helmet, writes on a shield hanging from a palm tree letters that look like XAIC. All this = 'Victory over Judea'. At 20 mm this looks like a semis.

Judea Capta.Titus.1449

It's larger cousin at about 25 mm also pictures Titus. On the reverse is a recurring Capta scene: A women seated next to a trophy. The woman is the conquered Judea and the trophy (constructed of various weapons on a stand) represents conquering Rome. Around in Greek: IOYDAIAS EALOKYIAS ('Judea Conquered').

J. Capta.Domitian.Set

Domitian, Vespasian's younger son and so Titus's brother, assumed the throne when Titus died. He took no part in suppressing the Revolt, but no doubt wanted to share in the afterglow and intimidation of the Jewish population. No mention of Judea or Capture but every coin shows a type of trophy. Denominations are hard to specify. Sizes range from 27 to 17 mm.

J. Capta.Domitian.1454

Domitian's titles include 'Germanicus' which he adopted after defeating some tribes in Europe. the reverse shows Minerva standing on a galley and facing rightholding a shield and a spear. Behind is a trophy. Minted in Caesaria. 27 mm.

J. Capta.Domitian.1455

Part of the same series, this piece is 24mm. Same portrait (now facing left) and legends. Now minerva faces left, holding or touching a trophy in her right hand, and a shield ans spear in the left.

Capta.Domitian.1459.

This one is 22 mm in diameter. Domitian faces right while Victory is walking left holding a small trophy and a wreath.

Capta.Domitian.1456

The smallest denomination, at 17 mm,Domitian faces right while Nike (Victory) walks left, holding a trophy and a wreath.

Domitian.Palm.1458

Based on his titles, this was struck in year 92. Domitian's head on the obverse. Legend means 'Emperor Caesar Domitian Augustus Germanicus Tribune XI. The reverse displays a lovely palm tree and more titles IMP XII COS XVI CENS PPP. Perhaps meant to be an As denomination.

J. Capta.denomination set

The Judea Capta theme appeared on all Roman denominations from the high value gold Aureus to the tiny copper Quadrans. They were minted in half a dozen mints across the empire, for about 20 years! The Romans effectively used their circulating coinage as a means of publicizing and emphasizing their achievements and dominance. Here are shown all but the gold. They picture Vespasian and Titus.

J. Capta.denarii.varieties

A variety of designs were used on these Denarii to convey Roman victory, showing the palm tree, captives, trophies, and celebrations. The Denarius was the basic coin of the empire. It was valued at 16 copper 'AS'es. 25 denarii equaled a gold Aureus. These denarii weigh about 3.4 grams. The brass and copper coins are fractions of a denarius - the small change.

J. Capta.Vespasian.sestertius

The sestertius is a brass coin about 33 mm in diameter. It was worth 1/4 of a denarius. Its large size is an impressive medium for images. The obverse portrays Vespasian with his titles. The reverse is the classic design of a Jew and Jewess bound and mourning under a 7-branched palm tree. 'Judea Capta' around, and below 'SC' (Senatus Consulto) meaning by order of the senate.

Capta.Vespasian.Titles

"IMP(erator) CAES(ar) VESPAS(ianus) AUG(ustus) P(ontifex) M(aximus) TR(ibune) P(ater) P(atriae) P CO(n)S(ul) III (the 3rd time). Military leader, head of country, High Priest, Father of his Country, Magistrate...

Judean Captives

It has been noted that these images of Judean captives give us a rare glimpse of Judean clothing from the temple period.

J. Capta.Vespasian.1502

This sestertius has essentially the same design - but in mirror image ! Not likely a mistake, since the engraving is well-executed and the lettering reads correctly. Scattered around the captives are weapons of the defeated forces.

J. Capta.Vespasian.1504

This sestertius is similar but now the man is a mighty Roman soldier. He stands tall in his armor and robe, holding a spear and sword. He represents the conquering Emperor.

J. Capta.Vespaian.sestertii.varieties

J.capta.As.Vespasian.1554b

This smaller copper 'As' shows the full legend. Now only the woman is shown, as the personification of the conquered 'Judea'. Interestingly, the bust of Vespasian has been deliberately scratched up. This was likely done by someone who did not approve of his actions. Sometimes the Romans themselves defaced images of emperors of whom they did not approve. But with Vespasian that was not the case, except among Jews.

J. Capta.Semis.1598

A Semis is valued at half an As. A deified Vespasian appears on the obverse of this coin issued by Titus. 'Judea' sits to the left under a palm tree. The lettering on this small coin is abbreviated 'IUD CAP'.

J. Capta.Vespasian.denarius.1479

This is one of the first coins minted after Judea's defeat. This denarius depicts Judea, represented by a woman, as countries often are, defeated, dejected, sitting next to a trophy, in a posture of mourning. Erecting trophies out of captured weapons was a Roman military tradition.

J. Capta.Vespasian.denarius.1480

A similar early denarius shows 'Judea', not as a mourner but as a captive. Her hands are bound behind her back. Here she is under a palm tree, which had become a recognized symbol of Judea.

J.Capta.Vespasian.denarius.1488

This denarius was minted in Lyon, France. The image is familiar but with a different style. Here Judea is standing, with the palm tree behind her. Her hands are bound in front of her. The legend reads 'IUDAEA DEVICTA' = Judea Defeated. Another early issue of Vespasian.

J. Capta.Titus.Denarius.1466

This denarius of Titus repeats an image from the Aureus and the Sestertius. No reverse legend but none is really needed. The palm tree, the woman in mourning, the victorious emperor - the image tells the story.

J. Capta.Titus.denarius.1483

This unusually clear denarius issued under Titus in about 72 CE features his clear bust on obverse with all his titles. The reverse portrays him in a 'Triumph', a military victory parade. He travels in a chariot pulled by 4 horses ('quadriga'). Titus rides inside, holding a branch in his right hand and a scepter in his left. This procession is chiseled in the Arch of Titus in Rome. Not shown here are the Judean captives that were part of the procession.

J. Capta.Titus.denarius.1486

This denarius was issued years later in 79 CE. T(itus) CAESAR IMP VESPASIANUS facing outward this time. This coin seems very round and complete. Often, crooks would shave slivers off the edge of denarii, getting them some 'free' silver. There is no Capta legend but the captive on the reverse in front of the trophy, with beard, hood, and flowing garment, looks Judean.

J. Capta.Vespasian.Quadrans.1564a.

The smallest denomination of Roman coinage (14 mm) was the quadrans = 1/4 As. This one bears Vespasian's name and titles. No mention of Judea or Capta but the obverse displays a palm tree and the reverse shows a vexillum. That is a Roman military standard so the message is clear: 'The Roman military has conquered Judea'. Even the poorest peasant would be reminded of this victory regularly.

Capta.Nerva.Fisci Iudaici.1603b

Nerva succeeded Domtian, reigning 96 - 98 CE. Each year he issued this sestertius with a large palm tree on the reverse. The legend reads: FISCI IUDAICI CALUMNIA SUBLATA ('the Insult of the Jewish Tax Removed'). 2 opinions: a) the insulting way of publicly identifying Jews, by checking for circumcision, was discontinued b) the insult of Jews paying taxes to the Temple instead of to Rome was removed (by requiring Jews to pay their annual Temple shekel tax to rebuild a Roman pagan temple.