VIRTUAL JEWISH MUSEUM

Ottoman Empire map

In addition to controlling most of North Africa, the Ottoman Empire included the Balkans, Greece, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Iran, and even parts of Yemen. Jews came to all these lands.

Italy.Venice.synagogue

Sepharadim came to Venice in the late 1500s and were confined to the Ghetto. This ornate synagogue was built there - and is still in use! Venice became a center for Sephardic knowledge. The synagogue is hidden in the upper floors of a 4 story building. There is an oval women's gallery, a sculpted wooden ceiling, and 3 large chandeliers.

Italy.Ancona.Rabbinic comments

Ancona had an old Jewish community, augmented by Spanish refugees. Their fortunes rose & fell at the whim of successive popes. R' David Avraham b. Shimshon wrote this note there in 1820, responding to an Halachic issue. He writes in distinctive Italian Sephardic script of the period and signs ס"ט (pure Sepharadi) after his name.

Bosnia.Sarajevo.synagogue

Sarajevo, in Bosnia, was the main city of Yugoslavia between the World Wars. Sepharadim arrived here in 1565. Bosnia became independent in 1992. Sarajevo is the cultural center of the region. This magnificent Sepharadi synagogue, the largest & most ornate in the Balkans, was completed in 1931 but destroyed by the Nazis in 1941.

Sarajevo synagogue.Yugoslavia

Mailed in August of 1932, this postcard must have been printed just after the synagogue was completed. As the stamps show, at this time Sarajevo was in Yugoslavia.

Bosnia.Sarajevo.Rabbinic letter

Sarajevo Chief Rabbi Yehudah ben Yosef Finzi writes to the Rabbi of Florence, Italy in 1883. Money has been brought to him that is earmarked for a certain widow who lives in Florence. He has sent it by mail. Could the Rabbi please forward it to the woman, & also send him a receipt for the funds. R' Finzi came from a well-known Florentine family. Written in generally square writing although the Alefs are Rashi style and the Pey at the end of a word is not elongated - traces of Sephardic style.

Bosnia.Sarajevo Haggadah

The Sarajevo Haggadah is one of the oldest Sephardic Haggadot in the world, created about 1350 in Barcelona. It is written on calfskin and brightly illuminated in various colors including copper and gold. It was brought out of Spain and centuries later sold to the Sarajevo museum. Facsimile copies have been made of this priceless Haggadah. Yugoslavia commemorated it on a stamp in 1966

Bosnia.Sarajevo.cemetery

The tombstones are inscribed in Hebrew and also Ladino. They have a distinctive shape, said to originate in Spain. On this early postcard they look complete, but many were damaged during the Bosnian war when forces fired from this area.

Croatia.Synagogue.Dubrovnik

Sepharadim joined the local Jews of Dubrovnik after expulsion. The synagogue, on narrow Jews street, dates back to the 1400s or earlier. It is the oldest Sephardic synagogue in use today, although services are infrequent.

Croatia.Dubrovnik.Museum

One floor of this small building serves as a museum. It contains centuries-old ceremonial Judaica and artifacts. The building has been damaged through various bombings and attacks, and has been restored.

Croatia.Zagreb.Rabbi legal doc

This legal document from 1949 deals with the legal status of a family. The handwritten headings state 'Republic of Yugoslavia' and 'Republic of Croatia'. One prominent name is Altarac, a known Sephardic family name.

Croatia.Zagreb.Legal.Rabbi.seals

The document has also been validated by the local Rabbinate. We see a date, signature, and seal of the Rabbinic council of Zagreb.

Croatia.Zagreb.JNF

The Nazis murdered 75% of Croatia's 25,000 Jews. Most survivors emigrated to Israel. Here we see a receipt for donation to the JNF - Jewish National Fund - office in Zagreb, in 1949.

Serbia.Belgrade.Sephardic synagogue

This was the Beth Israel synagogue of the Sephardic community in Belgrade. It was completed in 1908, in the Moorish Revival style. We see onion-shaped domes and rounded arches. The alternating rows of dark and light stone are typical. The synagogue was destroyed in the war in 1941.

Serbia.Pancsova synagogue

Originally part of Bulgarian, then Hungarian, then Ottoman Empires, Pancsova (also called Pancevo) became part of Yugoslavia after WWI. Today it is part of Serbia. "Many Spanish Portuguese exiled Jews resided here" it was reported in 1840.

Serbia.Belgrade.business cover

This business envelope from Belgrade ('Beograd') Serbia bears a Jewish name: Yakova Adani.

Serbia.Resistance Fighter

German forces took control of the area in 1941. Most Jewish men were executed & families sent to concentration camps. Resistance groups were organized and Jews were prominent in these partisan units. Samuel Melamed was held prisoner in Stalag IVF and wrote to Zagorka Mevorah in Belgrade. Perhaps he survived until liberation in 1945.

Bulgaria.Sofia.Synagogue

In 1494 Sephardic emigres joined the Bulgarian Romaniote and Ashkenazic communities of Bulgaria. This synagogue was completed for the Sephardic community in 1909. It is the largest in Southeastern Europe, seating 1300. Today only about 50 use it on a regular basis. No Bulgarian Jews were deported, although neighboring Jews did not fare as well.

Bulgaria.syn.interior

The style is Moorish revival. It is capped by an octagonal dome. Its chandelier is the largest in Bulgaria. The building also houses a museum, and a mikveh.

Bulgaria.rabbinic letter

The leading rabbi of Rustchuk, now called Ruse, sent this letter in 1921 to the Chief Rabbi of Bucharest, Romania. A man from Giurgiu Romania (right across the river) moved to Bucharest. Then came alone to Rustchuk. He now wants to divorce his wife but can't personally travel there since Ottoman citizens are not allowed in Romania. He will send the documents with an agent. Could the Rabbi please help facilitate this? Clear Rabbinic semi-Rashi style writing.

Bulgaria.Philippopolis.Ladino.mail

Postcard sent from Istanbul, Turkey to Philippopolis, Bulgaria. Written in very cursive soletreo script. the words are Ladino. Written the 10th of July 1911. 'My dear parents, Know that I'm leaving today ... at 3 p.m. departing for the place called El Sonaria on an Italian ship. Hashem should give us good health. Shalom'.

Bulgaria.Philippopolis.Zionism

Bulgarians were ardent Zionists beginning in the 1880s. The Zionist Headquarters was established here in Philippopolis, now called Plovdiv, from which this envelope was sent in 1915. This city has the only other active synagogue in Bulgaria. Emigration and secularism have greatly diminished the population. Relations with Israel cooled under the Soviets but have warmed up considerably in the last 2 decades.

Fez and Magen David

This photo postcard is unidentified. These merchants are sitting in front of their store. They are wearing Fezzes, which suggests the Ottoman Empire. Their sign reads Yakub Management. The Magen David design containing 'Tziyon' in Hebrew tells us their sympathies and also the prevailing freedom to express them.

Greece map

Jews were living in Greece several centuries before the common era, attested to in literature and by ancient synagogue remains. They were generally prosperous, educated, and integrated into society. They preserved their own dialect of Greek. Yanina, Florina Trikkala, and of course Salonica are some of their communities.

Greece.Patras.Synagogue

Jews lived here in antiquity. Intermittent wars, conquests, and oppression took their toll. In WWII, those the Nazis caught were murdered. Survivors moved elsewhere. The synagogue was destroyed in 1980. Its interior was reconstructed in the Jewish Museum of Greece where this image was captured.

Greece.Yanina.rabbi

Ioannina, as the Greeks write it, was the capital of Romaniote Jewry in Greece. This cultural group is descended from the Jews of the Roman Byzantine empire and preserved a Judaeo-Greek dialect called Yevanic. They had distinct traditions of food, clothing, customs and style of prayer, mostly lost today. Here the rabbi of the city writes to the rabbi of Alexandria regarding a widow's inheritance. The message is written in 'Rashi' style script while the signatures are in Soletreo. 1923.

Greece.Yanina.merchant

The Nahmia brothers are merchants living in Yanina. Jews here were involved in silk cloth, dying, goldsmithing & other crafts, and fishing. When Sepharadim immigrated from Spain in the 1500's traditions blended and today the original Romaniote culture is fading. Nearly 2000 Jews lived here in 1939. All but about 100 were deported to Auschwitz.

Greece.Trikala.Greek/Ladino

Trikala in central Greece is one of the oldest Jewish communities in the land. It maintained 3 synagogues: Romaniote ('Kahal Yevanim'), Sephardic, and Sicilian. Only a handful of Jews caught by the Nazis survived. This document dated 1885, is written in Greek letters but Ladino words! It is sort of a letter of recommendation and is signed by the gabbai? of the Jewish community of Trikala, Yacob Sidis

Greece.Florina.tinsmith

Florina is a town in mountainous northwestern Macedonia, Greece. Jews arrived from Spain after the expulsion. More recently others came from Yugoslavia. Most were merchants trading in fabric and clothing, and artisans. Here we see merchants selling tinware. On April 30, 1943, the Germans rounded up Jews and deported them to their death. The few who survived emigrated, ending a 500 year old community.

Greece.Rhodes.synagogue

The island of Rhodes in the Aegean is the largest of the Dodecanese islands. It's main city has the same name. Jews lived there well before the common era. They endured the ups & downs of conquest by Moslems, Crusaders and Turks. Under the Ottomans & after the arrival of Spanish refugees, their numbers and fortunes rose. It became a center of Sephardic learning and culture. Jews were merchants, craftsmen, and silk dealers. 'Kahal Shalom', (1577) is the oldest surviving synagogue in Greece.

Rhodes.Jewish Quarter.old town

Photo of a street in the Old Town of Rhodes, in the Jewish Quarter

Greece.Rhodes.Rabbinic seminary

In 1912, the islands came under Italian rule. In 1928 Italy established a Rabbinical college to serve the countries it ruled. The school attracted professors & students and earned an international reputation. The return address reveals that Gabriel Mihaeloff is professor of Hebrew at the Collegio Rabbinico in Rodi. The envelope bears an Italian stamp and postmark of Rhodes. The school was closed due to anti-Semitism in 1938.

Greece.Rhodes.banker

In 1819, the Alhadeff family founded a bank. It became a powerful financial house in the Levant and the family established commercial enterprises & clothing factories throughout the region. The city named a park and an avenue after them in gratitude for their generosity. On 23 July 1944, 1,673 Jews were shipped off to Auschwitz. Only 151 survived. This envelope was mailed from the bank in 1929.

Greece.Thessaloniki

Commonly called Salonika, it was the major city in the area after Constantinople. Jews had lived there since antiquity and there were 30 different congregations in the 1500's. At one time half the town was Jewish, working as traders, weavers, and Jewelers. They dominated the stevedores such that the port and stores came to a standstill on Shabbat. It was also a center of Torah learning, boasting numerous rabbis and kabbalists. 100,000 Jews lived there in the early 20th century.

Greece.Salonika.Italian synagogue

Various immigrant groups founded their own synagogues. This one followed the distinctive Italian rite. The congregation was established when they arrived here in 1423. This building was built in 1896 after the previous one burned down. This photo must have been taken before 1917 since a great fire burned everything in that year.

Salonika.Monastiriotes

The Synagogue of the Monasteriotes was dedicated in 1927 in Salonika. Families from Monastir in Yugoslavia who had settled in Thessaloniki after World War I (1914-1918), contributed to the Synagogue's building. It was one of nearly 60 in the city. During the Nazi occupation the Monasteriotes' Synagogue was the center of the ghetto in the inner city. When the entire Jewish population was deported to the death camps, the Synagogue was used by the Red Cross as a warehouse, avoiding d

Greece.Salonika.women & synagogue

In general, Middle Eastern women tended not to go to synagogue regularly. Many could not read Hebrew. So the majority of those synagogues had small women's sections if any. Here women are seated mostly outside this unidentified synagogue, listening through doors and windows.They are dressed up but don't appear to be holding prayer books.

Greece.Salonika.Chief Rabbi

This postcard announces "Chief Rabbi of Salonika-Turkey". He is R' Yaakov Meir (1856-1939), was born in Jerusalem and studied Talmud & Kabbalah. He served Salonika from 1908 - 1919. He returned to Jerusalem and in 1921 was elected 'Rishon LeTziyon' - Sephardic chief rabbi of Eretz Yisrael, alongside Ashkenazic counterpart R' Avraham Kook. Here he wears the robe hat and badge of the 'Haham Bashi' - chief rabbi in the Ottoman Empire.

Greece.Salonika.calendar

Hebrew printing began in Salonika in the early 1500's with the arrival of experienced printers from Portugal Spain and Italy. This Jewish calendar was printed there in 5683 (= 1922). It was approved by R' Ouziel. It lists all of the Parashiyot, Torah readings, Holidays, and daily times for Tefilah and Kriyat Shema. All of the explanations are in Ladino, in Sephardic Hebrew letters, still understandable to traditional Jews in 1922.

Greece.Salonika.Talmud Torah

In the 1500's, Salonika had dozens of mini-communities with their own Kashrut, synagogues, and educational institutions. Towards unity and consolidation a central school was established in 1520 - the Talmud Torah Hagadol. It had 200 teachers and 10,000 students. Also a library, communal treasury, printing press, fabric industry, and its own congregation. This letter on Yeshiva stationery is dated 3 Heshvan 5676 (1915).

Greece.Salonica.Talmud Torah

The letter attests that Yosef b. Avraham Burla studied there from 1907 - 14. He studied Hebrew, Turkish, French, Tanach, Talmud, mathematics, engineering, and Physical education. He excelled in behavior and initiative. Yosef wanted this letter to present to his next school, or to an employer. The seal in Hebrew, Turkish and French was stamped by the Principal, Y. Epstein.

Greece.salonica.Jewish community

This envelope is imprinted "The Jewish Community in Thessalonica" (That's the full name of the city). It was sent to the Chief Rabbi in Istanbul Turkey.

Greece.Salonika.cemetery

It doesn't look like much in this 1903 postcard view, but the cemetery was famous and quite large. It became a place to socialize, as much as to pay respects. Professional prayer-readers mingled with visitors, ready to offer help. In WWII, the Germans bulldozed the entire cemetery. Later, the University of Salonika was built on these grounds. Only bits and pieces of old stones appear in other parts of the city or in the new cemetery located elsewhere.

Greece.Salonika.Rabbinic clothes

The unidentified rabbi wears a nice robe with a wide sash. over it is a fur-trimmed coat. And he wears a fez. This is all standard in the Ottoman empire.

Greece.Salonika.old man

This elderly man wears a small turban around his cap or fez. And the standard robe of a typical Jew in the Ottoman empire. The beard and peyot add to the distinctive Jewish features.

Greece.Salonika.costumes

The women are wearing long skirts and several layers. The calico prints of their skirts were very much in fashion.

Greece.Salonika.woman

Here we see the headgear more clearly. A type of cap, reaching the forehead is worn atop the head, with a scarf securing it. Some hair shows on either side. She is all dressed up for this photo.

Greece.Salonika.women's clothing.

Long skirts and aprons, calico prints, caps and scarves for the women. The man wears a full robe, sash, a fez on his head, and a fur-trimmed robe over all. He is clean-shaven with a pencil mustache.

Greece.Salonika.women's clothes again

Although this photo is black and white, the models appear to be the same one's as those in the previous postcard image.

Greece.Salonika.'Jewish types'

Greece.Salonika.'Jewish merchant'

This elderly merchant is dressed typically. It looks like he deals in towels.

Greece.Salonika.old & new clothing

"Two centuries meeting - Mother and Daughter" is the caption. But the photo really says it all. At the end of the 19th century, Salonika was affected by the Ottoman attempt to modernize the empire. The new atmosphere reflected European fashions and mannerisms - sometimes offending the traditionalists. Dated 1918 on the back, this card shows the contrast between the mother's generation and that of the daughter.

Greece.Salonika.family

Three generations of women are pictured in a Salonika home. We see the calico prints that were fashionable. Being photographed was still a rather special occasion at the beginning of the 20th century, as indicated by the careful positioning and the jewelry and fine clothing.

Greece.Salonika.card to son

Mrs. Mordoh sends a postcard from Salonika to Zichron Yacov in Palestine, asking her son Sam how he is doing. Notice that in the return address she uses the full name of the city: Thessalonique. She writes entirely in French although on the front she wrote 'Written in French' in English! That was for the British censors who read all mail going in and out of the country during wartime (February 1941). We see the hexagonal censorship mark on the front.

Greece.Salonika.Card.back

Mom sends regards to Sam's wife and baby. They must have made Aliyah.

Greece.Salonika.merchant

Ben Roubi is a merchant living in Salonika, which in 1907 was still part of the Ottoman empire. His return address is in French, the language of most educated Sepharadim, and Turkish. Isac also uses Greek in his business dealings, so the address is written in French and Greek, and the letter inside is entirely in Greek. The stamp is Austrian! because he chose to use that country's post office to send his letter. (There were 6 different post offices in the Ottoman empire!)

Greece.Salonika.merchant

Bensussan ('Ibn Shoshan') family was prominent in Salonika. Jewish merchants dominated Salonika's economy, increasing prosperity in surrounding communities. That changed after the Balkan wars of 1912-13 when Greece took control of Salonika. Greek merchants became major competitors, borders changed, and after the great fire of 1917 there was mass emigration.

Greece.Salonika.merchant.Greek stamp

Bensussan's letter was mailed in 1918. By then, the Greeks were in control. So he used a Greek stamp to send this letter, which he stuck on the back of the envelope.

Greece.Salonika.mail

Isaac Emmanuel is writing to a business in stall # 92 of the market in old Jaffa, Palestine. Typed in Latin characters, the letter is personal. about family affairs, and is written in a Ladino/Italian mixture.

Greece.Salonika.personal letter typed

The full letter. In addition to family business, the letter reports that the weather was 12 degrees below 0, something rare and uncomfortable for Salonika.

Greece.Salonika.'Marach'

The stamp is Greek. The postmark is dated 19 November 1929.

Greece.Salonika.cover

In July 1940, the Germans had not yet come to Salonika. This envelope contained letters in French and in Ladino. On the front it says, in English, 'written in French'. This was for the benefit of British censors, who would be reading any mail that came in to Palestine.

Greece.Salonika.censored

We see two censorship strips and seals. The first was made by Greek authorities - after all this was wartime. The second was made by British authorities, who tried to control everything coming in or out of Palestine.

Greece.Salonika.stevedores

'Jewish stevedores of Salonika play cards' reads the caption. The image certainly looks posed. Most of Salonika's port workers and sailors were Jews. Thus the port was closed on Shabbat! Many of them later emigrated to Eretz Yisrael and settled in port cities. In 1933, 300 stevedores, seamen, and porters, along with their families settled in Haifa. The experience of these men enabled the Jewish ports to be run by Jews.

Greece.Salonika.Zionism Beitar

Zionism was one of Salonika's first steps toward modernization. It was more a cultural than religious connection. The government was suspicious, and parts of the Jewish community were opposed. But it continued. 5 delegates represented Salonika at the 9th world Zionist congress in 1909. Beitar had a branch in Salonika. They stood for a more militant approach to asserting Jewish rights in the Holy Land. This certificate commends the leadership of the local chapter by Yitzchak Moshe Ettas.

Greece.Salonika.JNF

R' Zvi Koritz, Chief Rabbi, circulated this announcement during Chanukah 1934, appealing for funds to support the Jewish National Fund, which at this time was buying land from Arab owners to establish Jewish farms and towns. "...donations will be given in memory of the great Edmund Rothchild...we invite the 'gizbarim' to dedicate (money from) the mitzvoth of Petichat Shearim, Hagbaha, and Haftarah to this cause...". It is written in Ladino printed in Hebrew 'Rashi' letters.

Greece.Salonika.Fire

In August 1917, an accidental fire blew out of control. It eventually consumed 2/3 of the city, & destroyed most of the 33 synagogues, churches, & many communal buildings. 450 Torah scrolls, many dating back to Spain before the expulsion. and, 5 Alliance schools, 10 rabbinical libraries, 5 yeshivot and a seminary were lost. 70,000 were left homeless, including over 50,000 Jews. This painting captures the image of what remained.

Greece.Salonika.Fire.Jewish Quarter

This card shows an actual photo of the destroyed Jewish Quarter of Salonika. Over 50,000 Jews were left homeless. The city decided not to rebuild quickly, but to hire a planner and make a more modern and safe city. As a result, many Jews left for good, and Salonika never regained its former glory.

Athens.Salonika.Auschwitz

This is a judgement from the lower court in Athens. It establishes that Flora Geni, nee Benroubi was killed in Auschwitz on May 24, 1944 by the Germans. Therefore, the court approves the claim of the defendants, apparently her relatives. It is not clear what the claim was; perhaps for life insurance payments. The judgement is dated August 14, 1947.

Athens.Salonika.Auschwitz

The Nazis transported Greece's Jews to Auschwitz. Over 85 percent were murdered, some 60,000 souls.

Turkey.map

Turkey was the center of the Ottoman Empire, which brought many Jewish communities under its rule as it expanded. Jews welcomed Turkish tolerance as a great relief from Byzantine & Moslem rule. Restrictions were only moderately enforced and there were no ghettos. The modern republic of Turkey was established in 1923 as a secular state with rights for minorities. But opposition to Zionism put Jews in a negative light. Over 80,000 Jews in 1927 shrunk to 40,000 by 1955 & 17,000 today.

Turkey-Political-Map-with-capital-Ankara-national-borders-most-important-cities-rivers-and-

Synagogue.Edirne

Edirne, in northwest Turkey, was previously known as Adrianople. It was once the capital of the empire, and a center of Jewish life. The 30,000 Jews who once lived here are reduced to a handful today. This postcard displays a line drawing of the grand synagogue.

Synagogue.Edirne.2005

This synagogue was built to replace 13 others that had burned in a major fire. It opened in 1909. The largest in Turkey, it seated 1200. It was abandoned in 1983 after most Jews left the city.

Edirne.Synagogue restored

The synagogue was restored by the Turkish Foundations Institute and re-opened in 2015. It functions as a museum and is intended to demonstrate Turkey's tolerance and value of minorities. But there are no more worshipers in Edirne to attend.

Edirne.synagogue.interior res

Istanbul.synagogue.Ahrida

This is the Ahrida synagogue, named for the Byzantine community its Romaniote members originally came from. Rebuilt after fires, its foundations are over 500 years old. The distinctive boat-shaped Teva (reader's platform) symbolizes the travels of migrating Jews. It underwent extensive restoration in 1992.

synagogue.tickets

The top ticket is from the 'Portugal' synagogue in Izmir (Smyrna), named for the origin of its members. This is a lottery ticket for a chance to share in 'Mitzvot' - honors associated with the Torah reading. It is written in Ladino, in Hebrew letters & dated 1942. The Hemdat Israel synagogue is in Istanbul. This seat ticket is written entirely in Turkish. It's dated 1944.

Edirne.Rabbi Gueron

Chief Rabbi Mordechai Gueron of Edirne wrote in French to certify that: Eskia Givre, legitimate son of Jacob and Zitiboul Givre, originally from Rome, was born on September 3rd,1839. Dated 4 March 1884 and signed in Hebrew. The next day the Italian agent in town stamped and certified it in Italian. R. Gueron was descended from a long line of leading rabbis in Edirne.

Chief Rabbi of Turkey.Haim Nahoum

Haim Nahoum (1872-1960) was a scholar, historian, and linguist. A native of Turkey, he became Chief Rabbi of the Ottoman Empire in 1909. In 1923 he became Chief Rabbi of Egypt and joined their Legislature. Active in international affairs. He was depressed by the decline of Egyptian Jewry after 1948. He died totally blind in 1960.

Istanbul.Chief Rabbi

Turkish Republic Chief Rabbi Rephael David Saban writes to the chief rabbis of Tel-Aviv Yafo in February 1956. He is trying to help a woman who is in Turkey reconcile with her husband who is apparently in Israel. They will meet in court in a month. R' Saban officiated from 1940 - 1960. Notice he writes in Solitreo which was used extensively in Turkey. He must have been confident that rabbis in Israel would be able to read it. Someone has jotted a summary below, in 'modern' script.

Rabbinic decree.Torah reading

A census was conducted on 20 October 1935 and no one could leave home until it was complete. But it was Simchat Torah! The Rabbinate decided to combine that reading with the day before resulting in a Shemini Atseret service with an unheard of FOUR Torahs being read from. The readings are: Aser Te'aser, Vezot Haberacha, Bereshith, and maftir Bayom Hashemini. This flyer spells it all out in Ladino.

Rabbinic decree.Passover

This decree is also in Ladino, dated 1912. It is a warning not to eat any Passover products which are not under supervision. They should only buy Matza or flour that has the rabbinic seal on it, an example of which is at the bottom of the flyer. 8 rabbis are listed plus the chief Rabbi of the Ottoman empire, R' Chaim Nachum.

Kollel

R' Yitzchak Palaggi, head of the Kollel in Izmir, pleas for support of Kollel families, particularly at this time of year (Rosh Hashana). Typically, stipends were given out in Tishrei & in Nissan. The income from the 'Gabella', community tax on kosher products, helped provide this income,but now more was needed. 'All who have mercy are shown mercy by Heaven.' Dated 1900 & bearing the old style negative seal, in Hebrew & Turkish, wherein the background is ink & the letters are white. Ladino.

Siddur.Istanbul

Iberian refugees brought printing to the Ottoman empire. They were second only to Italy in the production of Hebrew books. This siddur was printed in Istanbul (formerly Constantinople) in 5715 (=1956). It is a year-round siddur with prayers in Hebrew and occasional directions in Ladino, in Hebrew letters. The modern Turkish government grudgingly allowed the teaching of Hebrew to enable traditional praying.

Turkey.schoolbook.cover

This 60 page booklet teaches Hebrew reading, starting with vowels and then consonants. The order ל ד ג י ב ר א is unusual. The few directions are given in Turkish written in Latin letters. But there are also come comments inn Ladino, written in Hebrew letters, which is the language most traditional Jews spoke. Some basic prayers are included.

Turkey.schoolbook.inside

For practice, and to develop prayer skills, the booklet contains morning Brachot, Ashrei, Shema, the Amidah, and Birkat Hamazon. Note that directions are in Turkish.

Turkey.Tanach.Ladino.title page

This 400 page volume is the entire 24 books of the Jewish bible. Called TaNaCh by Ashkenazim and Kof Dalet, 'the 24' by Sepharadim. It was published in Constantinople in 1873. It is printed beautifully and clearly in Rashi style letters and Ladino language. There is only one problem. It was published by Christian missionaries and includes translations that favor their beliefs.

Turkey.Ladino.tanach.missionaries

A reader would have to be careful and knowledgeable to catch these examples: Psalm 22 verse 17: 'Dogs have encompassed me...they are at my hands and feet.' This Ladino translation says'...they have pierced my hands and feet', a reference to Jesus on the cross. In Psalm 2 verse 12 we have 'Do homage in purity...'. This Ladino translation gives us 'Kiss the child...' another reference to Jesus.

Turkey.Cavalla.'Europe'

Cavalla (Kavala in Greek) in northern Greece was the principal seaport of eastern Macedonia. It was part of the Ottoman empire until 1912. Jews had arrived after the expulsion. Primary boys and girls schools were established by the Alliance in 1905. This envelope was from the official stationery of the school, mailed in 1910 with Turkish stamps.

Turkey.Cavalla.Europe.back

The return address states 'Turkey of Europe' (in French). Kavala was on the western side of the Sea of Marmara and so part of Europe, not Asia. Since they had been part of Macedonia and later Greece, they wanted to identify with Europe rather than Turkey, which is also called Asia Minor.

Turkey.school.Alliance

The Alliance Israelite Universelle opened up its first Turkish school in 1867, eventually operating 40 schools there, second only to Morocco. This report card is from the school in the town of Haskeuy, for the year 1920-21. Notice that it shows grades for a dozen subjects, including French, English, and Turkish, but not Hebrew or Jewish History. The de-emphasis on Jewish subjects helped to loosen the bonds with tradition for many students. This child had excellent work habits & behavior.

Turkey.Jewish calendar

This calendar was printed in Turkey and has 4 dates: Jewish Christian, Moslem, and Turkish. It also has parashat hashavua, holidays, fast days, times for Keriat Shema and more. The language of the calendar is Ladino, written in 'Rashi script'. Included are the words for Kaddish & Berachot for an Aliya to the Torah in Turkish transliteration. The owner wrote in Yahrzeits for family members in Ladino script.

Turkey.ketuba

This large ketuba (marriage contract) records a wedding that took place on the 14th of Tishrei (erev Sukkot!) in 1942 in Istanbul between Avraham Merkado and Ida Cohen. It is filled out in both Hebrew and Turkish, filed with the government, tax paid, and stamped by the Hacham Bashi (chief rabbi).

Turkey.Ketuba.detail

The text is printed in square Hebrew but the insertions are in Soletreo, the Sephardic Ladino script. An interesting commitment at the end is that the groom will take no additional wife in her lifetime and that he agree not to divorce her without due process in a Jewish court.

Turkey.Ketuba.seal

The seal of the Grand Rabbinate of Turkey is sharp and clear. It is dated when the seal was issued, in 1928. This document is dated 1942.

Turkey.ketuba.detail

This box summarizes the total amount committed to the Ketuba: 665 Turkish Lira. It was recorded in advance of the ceremony, on 3 Tishrei. We also see the signature of the recording secretary, Aharon Frisak? and the inevitable tax stamps proving payment of the fees.

Turkey.hospital

Or haHayyim Society founded a Jewish hospital in Constantinople in 1900. It was located in Balata, a suburb of the city on the European side of the Marmara Sea and the location of the old Jewish district.

Turkey.hospital.photo

This is the hospital building, as pictured in the Jewish Encyclopedia. It was located on the Golden Horn which is an inlet from the sea next to the community.

Turkey.newspaper. El Tiempo

An envelope of the Jewish periodical 'El Tiempo' published in Constantinople/Istanbul between 1872 - 1930. The language of the paper was Ladino & at its peak half the Jewish residents were subscribers. Supported by the Alliance, it also promoted knowledge of French & reported on news in European capitals. Included were pieces in Turkish, in Hebrew letters, to aid Jewish readers in learning that language. The paper did not promote Zionism, choosing instead Turkish nationalism.

Turkey.business.Hatem.cover

Chaim Yitzchak Hatem of Constantinople used a seal to identify himself on correspondence. We can read his name in Hebrew and Latin letters. This early mail was sent in 1869, when outer envelopes were not yet common. One simply folded the letter and sealed it and the outer page was used for addressing and stamping.

Turkey.business.Hatem.message

The message, in French, is all business, about shipping and paying for goods. The recipients, Pastre Brothers in Marseille, were likely Jewish too, since Mr. Hatem signed his name in French letters and then in Hebrew (solitreo).

Turkey.business.Smyrna

Greek: Smyrna. Turkish: Izmir. Izmir became a major Jewish center. At its peak 17,000 Jews prayed in 18 synagogues and attended numerous Yeshivot. Overwhelmingly Sephardic alongside the ancient Romaniote community. Fires, earthquakes, and blood libels dotted the city's history. This envelope identifies its company in Turkish, Hebrew and Greek. Located on the Western coast of Turkey, it had many Greek speaking citizens. The letter is addressed to the War Victims Bureau in 1917.

Turkey.business.Constantinople

Mordechai Levy does business in Constantinople. He uses French alongside Turkish in his return address. That was an international language of the time and also heavily used by Sephardic Jews in the Mediterranean area.

Merchant invoice.1927

Nahman Salomon is a broker in Constantinople. This is his invoice for a variety of merchandise he is shipping to Jerusalem by way of Jaffa. He writes in French and also soletreo Hebrew. The letterhead is in French, Greek, Turkish and Hebrew. Dated 3 March 1927.

Turkey.busiiness.stamp

Isaac Jerusalmi uses his business stamp on his correspondence. He writes in French to Germany. A Mr Daniel Fizinger has lost a steamship ticket and is asking Mr. Dempenwolf to help replace it. Perhaps Jerusalmi was a travel agent in 1907.

Turkey.mail to Palestine.Ladino

Sent from 'Consple' (that's how they abbreviate it) to Jerusalem in August 1913. This card is written in Ladino, in Soletreo script. But it is not the careful elaborate script used by rabbis on formal documents. It is much more casual and quick, which worked for the sender but is hard to decipher. The sender signed his name 'Hayyim'. The address is simply Samuel B. Yeshua, Jerusalem, which may have been enough in those early years. The message is about exchanging documents, letters & a package.

Turkey.mail to Palestine.message

Turkey.School meal card

Avram Seloni was a student in a school in Istanbul. He received this meal card from the 'Charity Society for Poor School Children' in October 1948. It lists his grade and school number and father's name - Hayim.

Turkey.passport.cover

This Turkish passport was used by a Jewish woman in the 1950's. The cover shows the abbreviation for 'Turkish Republic' and the symbol from Turkey's flag of a star and a crescent. Turks have their own mythological explanation for the symbol, but it was in fact used in the middle east in ancient times.

Turkey.passport.photo etc.

These pages identify the holder of the passport. She is Fortune Amiel daughter of Nisim Saul and Sultana. She was born in Istanbul in '1306'. that equals 1889. There are entries dated 1956, at which time she would have been 67 years old.

Turkey.mail from Jerusalem

Addressed to 'Bay' (Mr.) Bondy Beraha from Samuel Beraha in Jerusalem. No doubt a relative, perhaps a son who made Aliya to Palestine. The country was still controlled by the British in 1946.

Turkey.mail from Jerus.return address

This letter is registered so it contained something important. It was stamped on each leg of its journey, Jerusalem, Galata, and finally Istanbul.

Turkey.mail to Tel Aviv.Hebrew typed address

Sent by Harry Baltsan in Istanbul to Tel Aviv, Palestine. Interestingly, the letter is addressed both in English and in Hebrew, which the sender was comfortable putting on the envelope in 1945. Even more interesting, the sender had a Hebrew typewriter with which to address the envelope. Since this mail was going to a newspaper editor, perhaps the sender was a journalist himself. The mail was censored.

Turkey.father to son.Ladino

B.S. Barbouth writes to his son living in Tiberias Palestine. The message is entirely in Ladino but written in Latin letters, not in Hebrew script. The message is chatty. Apparently he is selling his business - a pharmacy - and then intends to join his son in Palestine. The card is censored as it was in the middle of World War II. on the left you can read 'si kiere el dyo' which means 'If G-d wills' (Im Yirtzeh Hashem').

Turkey.father to son.Ladino.back

The message is entirely in Ladino but written in Latin letters, not in Hebrew script. As Jews became more assimilated, this tended to happen. First Ladino in Hebrew script, then Ladino in Latin script, finally Turkish in Latin script.

Turkey.clothing.beggars

The caption of the photo reads 'Jewish Beggars'. The background is artificial and this photo was taken in a studio with the people carefully posing symmetrically for the picture. This was commonly done to provide postcard publishers with interesting designs for their cards, which was a big fad in the early 20th century. The models are wearing somewhat tattered clothes, all bearded, and seem stereotypical = poor Jews living off society.

Turkey.clothing.beggars.back

Turkey.Jewish family

Three generations of a Jewish family in Turkey. Taken in 1943, they are wearing modern clothes of the period.

Turkey.family.Ladino

The inscription on the back of the photo no doubt identifies the people in it. It is written in a very cursive style of Solitreo. And the language itself is Ladino. The date is obvious, 19 May 1943.

Turkey.Izmir Jew in Israel

Turkey.Military exemption tax

The Ottoman empire exempted Jews from military service, perhaps mistrusting their loyalty or worthiness. Instead Jews were required to pay a tax. It was collected by the Jewish community. These are receipts recording 3 such payments, in 1882. The script is soletreo. The names include Avraham Moron and Rod Palagi. Along the perforations we read 'Kolel Izmir'. They must have collected the tax in that city.

Turkey.wealth tax

To meet wartime needs, a 'wealth' tax was approved, based on property or income. It started at 5% and rose wildly for non-Moslems, especially Jews. It led to arrests, seizures & deportations, mostly for Jews who couldn't pay. Businesses were ruined, merchants were bankrupted. Joseph couldn't pay so he was sent to Camp Adapazari to work off what he owed. He works every day, so far is in good health...gets off 3 days a month..There is no postage stamp - a common feature of prisoner mail. 1941

Turkey.Zionist office

An office representing the Jewish Agency of Palestine operated in Constantinople. It was instrumental in bringing tens of thousands of Jews to Israel after the 1948-49 war. This receipt acknowledges a payment of 3 pounds sterling from Avraham Baruh. A documentary stamp is attached which accompanied any official piece of paper in the Ottoman Empire. The circular seal is in Hebrew and English. Constantinople is referred to as Kushta in Hebrew. Later it became known as Istanbul.

Ashkenazic Community

A small percentage of the Jewish population was Ashkenazic. They built several synagogues. This one had the colorful name 'Tofrei Begadim', Clothes Sewers (= tailors) Synagogue. This is a donation receipt, dated 5 Elul 1945.

Syria Map

The Syrian community dates back to Biblical times & is mentioned in the Talmud. The Talmudic Academy of Palestine was located in Damascus for several generations. Spanish refugees came to dominate the indigenous 1200 families. Aleppo Jews came from Sepharadim while Damascene Jews dated back to antiquity. Two-thirds of Syria's 15,000 Jews left after Israeli independence. In the 90's more were smuggled out. Remaining Jews live in fear - the only residents to have their religion listed on ID.

Syria.synagogue.Aleppo

This is the Tevah (bima) of the Great Synagogue of Aleppo ('Halab'). It is the centerpiece of a large complex. This open air style was used in the summer months when no rain was expected. It was built in the Byzantine period on ancient synagogue foundations. Benches surround the perimeter in typical Sephardic style.

Syria.synagogue.complex

The larger complex dwarfs the Tevah in its courtyard. This synagogue housed the famous Aleppo Codex, which was damaged in the riots of 1947 following the UN declaration of a Jewish (and Arab) state in Palestine. The synagogue was destroyed then.

Syria.Aleppo.Rabbi Dwek

R' Yaakov Dwek was chief rabbi & head of the rabbinic court of Aleppo 1901 - 14. He opposed the modernization of the Jewish community encouraged by the Alliance school, which led to a loosening of traditional observance. Aleppo Jews visited his grave every year on erev Yom Kippur. This letter was sent to R' Moshe Palaggi in Jerusalem, describing charity funds - 11 + pounds - collected for the needy of Jerusalem. Written in Soletreo in 1913. Notice that Aleppo is called 'Aram Tzova in Hebrew.

Syria.Rabbi Dweck.date

Look carefully at the date. It reads Yom K' Lechodesh Tamuz T'A'R'G'. The usual order would be T'R'A'G' Hebrew numbers are also letters. R' Dwek purposely switched the order of the letters, which still represent the same date but now means 'to yearn' (as in Psalms 42).

Syria.Damascus.Rabbi Maslaton

The Jews of Damascus were merchants and tradesmen, along with rabbinic leaders. Writing in Soletreo in 1925, R' Yehudah Hayyim Hakohen Tarab Maslaton testifies that the young woman Miryam bat Avraham Butali is known to be single (and so eligible to marry). Rabbi Maslaton later emigrated to Egypt where he officiated until his death after WWII.

Syria.Hebrew printing.Aleppo

This booklet contains several prayer-poems which mourn over the destruction of the Beit Hamikdash. The poems are partly in Hebrew and partly in Judeo-Arabic, printed entirely in Hebrew letters. Printed in 1935, in Aleppo, by Ezra Haim of Damascus. We see the date, in Arabic numerals, expressed as 5690 and 1935. Aleppo is identified as 'Aram Tzova' in Hebrew.

Syria.Psalms.Arabic

This is a handwritten page of Arabic writing, very carefully done. It is an Arabic translation of Tehilim (Psalms), specifically parts of chapters 72, 73, and 74. This loose page came from a larger book. Perhaps it was prepared for people who couldn't read Hebrew but still wanted to recite these chapters. This is the end of Psalm 72, as the red writing states, and the beginning of Psalm 73.

Syria.Psalms.Arabic.73

Page 62 of the same book. This is the rest of Psalm 73, as the red writing states, and the beginning of Psalm 74.

Syria.Bar mitzvah

This card was mailed from Damascus to a relative in Haifa, Palestine in 1943. It was a turbulent time in Syria, with many groups struggling for power. In addition to the Syrian stamps & postmark, there are two censorship marks: one for the Free French, who were fighting against the influence of Nazis, which had spread to France and then to Syria which was part of the French mandate after WWI. When it successfully arrived in Palestine, it was censored by the British who were in control there.

Syria.bar mitzvah.Arabic message

Salha Chabaz, who lives on 'Jews' Street' in Damascus writes to her brother Natan in Haifa. She writes in flowing Arabic, discussing the upcoming Bar Mitzvah of their nephew. "Please buy me a nice dress for the Bar Mitzvah. Clothes are expensive in Syria."

Syria.Damascus.New Year greeting

Joseph Farhi has taken a business card and turned it into a New Year's greeting. He has written on the back in Hebrew the traditional greeting:מועדים לשמחה - חגים וזמנים לששון which is said on all Jewish festivals. He added an abbreviation of the New Year greeting: תז"ל רנ"ו which stands for תזכו לשנים רבות נעימות וטובות 'May you merit many good & pleasant years.' He ends with 'May he be blessed in the tent of the righteous.'

Syria.School.Alliance.Damascus

Jews in England & France founded the Alliance Israelite Universelle to 'work toward the emancipation and moral progress of the Jews' of middle eastern countries. Their main accomplishment was the establishment of schools, which taught general subjects and sometimes Hebrew and religion too. The boys' & girls' schools in Damascus opened in 1880. As a result, Jews became westernized earlier than their Moslem neighbors but also more relaxed about religious practice. Sent from Mexico in 1914.

Syria.school.Alliance Damascus.from

In 1910 there were 768 students , most from poorer families. in 1924 1359 students. In the 40's most children over 10 worked and received no education. In 1942 the principal of this school was murdered! Still operating in 1965, by 1990's most Jews had left Damascus. Mailed in 1941 to Tel Aviv.

Syria.student .ID

This card belonged to Hind daughter of Farid Tayah. She lived in Aleppo. Hind was a student in 6th grade when she used this card in 1956. Hind eventually reached Israel.

Syria.student.id.back

This ID card admitted the student to tests. This back lists some rules: * bring no books * bring correct writing tools * bring a compass and a protractor * leaving early is not permitted.

Syria.men.clothing

Men's clothing resembled that of non-Jews, sometimes differing in colors or materials. Most significant was the headgear - usually a cap, sometimes with a turban wound around it. Westernization caused a mixture of styles. One man wears baggy pants and a turban - with a suit jacket. Another has a striped robe - and a European hat. The third with robe, sash, and turban looks most traditional. Jews could most easily be recognized by their beard and side curls.

Syria.woman.clothing

This young Jewish woman is wearing a simple white dress with embroidery at the collar and sleeves. Over it is a long dark cloak, worn whenever woman walked in the streets. Her mostly uncovered hair implies that she is not yet married, while the jewelry suggests some kind of festive occasion.

Syria.Damascus.luxury home

The Stambouli family was wealthy and prominent in Damascus. They originated in Spain then made their way to Istanbul Turkey hence their new family name. Settling in Damascus in the 19th century, these financiers did business on behalf of the sultan. Their luxurious home in the Jewish Quarter was called 'Andalouse' after their Spanish origins. However most Jewish homes and lifestyles were much more modest.

Syria.merchant.Damascus

Mailed from Damascus to Switzerland in 1920 by the Mougrabi business. They were comfortable printing their return address in Hebrew in addition to French and Arabic. The letter is registered. Jews were merchants, peddlers, and metal craftsmen. Damascene Jews were more Arabized and less cosmopolitan than Aleppans. The stamps are from a short-lived kingdom that was taken over by the French.

Syria.merchant.to Lebanon

Mailed from Damascus to Beirut in 1936 by Jewish merchant Moise (Moshe) Zagha. The stamps are overprinted with an airplane image and the word 'Avion' (air) turning them into airmail stamps. It is only 52 miles between the two cities so this must have been urgent business. Many of Beirut's Jews came from Syria. There must have been many business dealings between them.

Syria.merchant.Damascus Haifa

David Blanga and sons does business in Damascus. They also have an office in Haifa, Palestine! The 2 cities are only 90 miles apart, but across borders, and many more miles apart politically. When this was mailed in 1932, it wasn't as big a problem. After 1948 it would have been impossible.

Business in Damascus

This business envelope from Damascus shows the merchant’s name in French, Arabic, and Hebrew. It was sent to a company on 1 June 1926. Interestingly, it was mailed with an EEF stamp, which was supplied by the British Mandate in Palestine. And the postmark reads ‘Tel Aviv’. So even though it is evidence of the Jewish community in Damascus, it must have been used in Eretz Yisrael.

Syria.Aleppo.token

This primitive token was cut from a thin sheet of brass. Several of these were worth one of the smallest denomination coins, enabling people to give small amounts of Tzedakah no matter how limited they might be. It quotes from Isaiah 54:14 'Bitzedakah Tikonani' = With righteousness/charity you will be established. The letters on either side in the center, Bet and Kaf, may stand for Beit Knesset = synagogue. The symbol in the middle is an enigma. These tokens are attributed to Aleppo.

Syria.tzedaka to E. Yisrael

Receipt for a donation of 70 pounds to the Relief Committee in Palestine helping poor Jews from Russian and European countries. They were not particularly Sephardic but the Damascus community was helping. The efforts of Chief Sephardic Rabbi Ben Zion Uziel were instrumental in obtaining the funds. This was 1943 and there were many European refugees. The seal of the committee is stamped in red in the lower left corner.

Support for British Forces

British forces were in the area in World War II to push against French Vichy forces allied with the Germans. Here, surgeon Dr. Mizrachi writes in February 1944 regarding religious needs of their Jewish soldiers, including a Purim Ball. As they are far from home, a meeting is planned to make arrangements for needs concerning Purim and 'Pessah'.

Lebanon.map

Small communities of Jews were augmented by Sephardic merchants from Greece and Turkey and later Syria and Iraq. Most Jews ended up in Beirut, Sidon or Alley by 1900. There were 10,000 before 1948. Under Christian -Arab rule conditions were relatively stable. Most Jews left in 1967 and the rest in 1976 due to civil war. Only a few dozen remain.

Lebanon.synagogue.Beirut

Magen Avraham synagogue, one of 16 in Beirut was built in 1925 and named for the father of its benefactor Moise Sasoon of Calcutta. In its day it was the central institution of the Jewish community providing services, charity, meetings and education. It was ruined in the 1976 and 1982 wars. Included in a number of government rebuilding projects, it is now restored, although there is virtually no one to pray in it.

Lebanon.synagogue.song book

This is the song book of the Magen Avraham synagogue choir. It is titled 'Kol Sason' - sounds of rejoicing - a quote from the wedding berachot, but also a pun on the name of the benefactor Sassoon family. The choir was very popular and people flocked to synagogue to hear it. Contains 224 songs & poems. Printed in 1931 in Beirut.

Lebanon.Beirut.synagogue.Fedayeen

This press photo shows Arab fedayeen (volunteer fighters) in front of the Magen Avraham synagogue. Contrary to first impressions, they are protecting the synagogue from attacks during the civil war in 1975. Despite those efforts, the synagogue was eventually ruined in that conflict, and most Jews left the country.

Lebanon.Aley.synagogue

Aley is a resort town in the mountains. Lebanese of various backgrounds would vacation there. It has the oldest synagogue in Lebanon, built in the late 1800's. Shown here at the lower left, it was probably built by Ezra Anzarut, a Sepharadi merchant. The interior was bombed in an Israeli-Arab skirmish but the walls still stand. Supposedly it will be restored.

Lebanon.Beirut.chief rabbi

Rabbi Shabetai Bahbut became chief rabbi in 1921. He wrote this document in 1937 responding to an inquiry from the chief rabbi of Jerusalem about a man who abandoned his wife. The writing is decorative but essentially 'Rashi' style favored by many rabbis. He seals it with the seal of the Beit Din. Notice the letterhead is in Hebrew, Arabic and French.

Lebanon.Sidon.Chhief rabbi

Rabbi Moise (Moshe) Braun, chief rabbi of Sidon, sent this letter to the chief rabbi of then Palestine, Benzion Uziel in 1941. It is written in French. He is asking to be recognized by the Holy Land rabbis as the chief rabbi of Sidon, which apparently they hadn't, despite his letterhead which is printed in Hebrew, Arabic, and French. It seems that some unhappy people bad-mouthed him to them. "I have been serving faithfully for 25 years...Recognized by the French and Lebanese authorities...".

Lebanon.Beirut.school Alliance

Mailed in 1945 to Tel Aviv from the Jewish Alliance school in Beirut. The Beirut building was blown up in 1950 but immediately rebuilt. There were still hundreds of student there in 1960 but as the Jewish community dwindled, so did the school.

Lebanon.Beirut.school.Alliance.front

Mailed in 1945, the envelope reads 'Written in Hebrew' so the censor would know what language is enclosed. It was passes by the Free French - soldiers fighting against Nazis in World War II.

Lebanon.Beirut.Printing.Jedeo-Arabic

This booklet is entitled Mi Kamocha, a prayer poem that praises G-d. It is in Hebrew with Judeo-Arabic translation after each sentence. It was printed in Beirut, as it says on the front cover in Hebrew, in the year 5668 (=1908).

Lebanon.Ketuba

This Ketuba, marriage contract, is dated 1952 in Beirut - 8 Tammuz 5712. Yakov 'Jack' Ades asked Suzitte Sason to be his wife and committed 10,555 Lebanese pounds to her Ketuba. It is signed by chief rabbi BenZion Lichtman and another whose name is unclear.

Lebanon.Ketuba.detail

There are 2 remarkable provisions. He shall take no additional wife unless the marriage does not produce a child within 10 years. And he shall not travel further than Gaza (south) or Aleppo (north) without leaving her sufficient provisions to live on, as they shall both agree. Jack signed his own name in agreement in French letters right in the center.

Lebanon.Woman.clothing

'Young Jewish woman from Beirut'. Her cap is stylish but not intended to cover all her hair. Her dress is traditional but made with fancy prints from imported fabric. Covering all is a high-necked robe encircled by a striped sash. By earlier 20th century, young women could get a high school education and thus jobs. It had the effect of postponing marriage from age 14 until 18 or later.

Lebanon.woman.clothing.

'Young Jewish Woman'. She is dressed even more modern, with a stylish matching hat and rather short sleeves. The card was mailed from Beirut in 1922. At this time Beirut had prestigious universities, a banking secrecy law that attracted cash, and favorable trade conditions. It was a rather tolerant environment, heavily influenced by French culture, due to the French Mandate.

Lebanon.mail from Belgium.front

This card was mailed from Invers, Belgium to Beirut ('Syria !') in 1931. The picture shows the famous Tomb of Rachel. As the caption on the reverse explains, this card was sold by the Jewish National Fund to help reclaim lands in Palestine.

Lebanon.mail from Belgium

The card is addressed to the A(merican) U(niversity) B(eirut) Prep School. This program attracted students from all over the world, including Jews, although it was founded by Protestants with American money. The prep school helped students get ready for the rigorous program, ranked among the best in the world. Sister writes to brother about family.

Lebanon.PC.Ladino

Jacob Israel writes a chatty family message in Ladino (in Latin letters) from Beirut to Haifa Palestine. It's 1943. The card was mailed from the Greek consulate in Beirut. It passed through the Free French who were fighting against Nazi influence in French territories.

Lebanon.PC.Ladino.message

'Glad you are all well...We are waiting for the end of the war...Good wishes for the New Year 5704...that it should be the end of bad times...Hashem should enable us to see the faces of our dear ones...Shalom'

Lebanon.mail to Israel.front

Miriam Shitah is studying in Beirut, but seems to come from Palestine. She writes in flowing Hebrew to her friend? relative? Yitzchak in Tel Aviv. It is interesting that in 1937 she was comfortable travelling to and studying in Beirut.

Lebanon.mail to Israel

The return address shows us that she was studying at the American Junior College for Women in Beirut. It also shows us she had the money to buy special stationery for her stay there. And interestingly, she was comfortable putting her name in Hebrew on the envelope.

Lebanon.Beirut.merchant.back

Maurice Haimovici sent this letter to Palestine in 1939. His last name tips us off to his Jewishness.

Lebanon.Beirut.merchant.front

Haimovici's letter was sent to Pardes Hanna, Palestine. At this time, 90% of Lebanon's 7,000 Jews were merchants, 5% were professionals (lawyers, bankers, etc.), and 5% were craftsmen.

Lebanon.merchant.Chalom.front

Isaac Chalom (Shalom) does business in Beirut. He is writing to a company in Switzerland. The envelope seems unremarkable - until you look at the back.

Lebanon.Beirut.merchant.Chalom.back.Palestine help

The back of Chalom's envelope carries an additional tax stamp. These could be used to tax anything. In this case, the stamp is overprinted with a blue inscription in Arabic. it reads "Help Palestine". What was meant was, 'Help our fellow Arabs who are fighting the Jews in Palestine'. (It was March 1949). Isaac may not have had any choice in paying this tax & using the label. On the other hand many Turkish Jews didn't want to be lumped with Zionists, which could undermine their own safety.

Lebanon.ID card cover

This is an identity card for a Lebanese Jew. Most countries require its residents to have ID with them at all times. We see that this one was heavily used.

Lebanon.ID card.photo etc.

Youssef Zardak looks at us from his picture. He is the son of father Salim and mother Roujina Azar and was born in Beirut in 1898. His religion is Jewish and his occupation is merchant. He is literate and married. This document was issued in 1933.

Lebanon.JNF.Heb Arabic

This printed letter is addressed to the Jews of Syria and Lebanon. It is signed, in print, by both chief rabbis of Palestine. In Hebrew, Arabic, & French it calls for donations to the Jewish National Fund to help reclaim and restore land in Palestine for the Jews. It is dated 5702 = 1942.

Lebanon.JNF.French

Jews in Moslem countries felt compelled to reduce their support for Zionism as their host countries became hostile to the idea of a Jewish state. They DID however support activities in Erez Yisrael with their donations.

EY.Map of Holy Land

EY.Safed.Ari synagogue

Safed / Tzefat did not have a significant Jewish presence before the arrival of Sephardic refugees. But those prominent rabbis soon made it a center of scholarship and Kabbala. This synagogue is named for the 'Ari', R' Yitzchak Luria, who had enormous influence on Jewish thought and observance long after his short life. Over the years, Jewish life survived wars, plagues, pogroms, even earthquakes.

EY.Safed.Synagogue.Yosef Karo

This synagogue is named for R' Yosef Karo. He is the famed author of the Shulchan Aruch, the universally studied digest of Jewish laws. He wrote it from the perspective of Sephardic custom and later commentators added Ashkenazic custom as well. These synagogues all have a distinct Sephardic style.

EY.Safed.Shador letter to N Africa

This letter, from the Central Committee of the Sephardic Portuguese Community in Tzefat, introduces Maasoud b. Shimon, emissary. It is 1919, wartime, and conditions are difficult. He is a 'Shador' - Shaliach Derabanan - sent by the community to raise funds abroad, in this case North Africa. Five rabbis of the Sephardic community have signed.

EY.Safed.Shador letter top

This is the elaborate top of a long letter, entirely hand-written, vouching for its holder, one Yitzchak ben Mordechai, who is leaving Tzefat to collect funds. He is a scholar but is now making a wedding for his son and thus is forced to travel. The writing is rabbinic Rashi style but the signatures are classically Sephardic.

EY.Safed.Shador letter

An additional endorsement to the letter appears in purple ink on the left. It is written in Soletreo. At the bottom, the Beit Din of Egypt added their endorsement. The signature and seal on the right are from Yosef Ye'udah who is also identified as Haham Bashi = Chief Rabbi of Tzefat.

EY.Safed.receipt

Receipt for a donation to the Sephardic institutions in Tzefat. filled out in soletreo and signed and sealed by 3 rabbis. 1945.

EY.Safed.Sabbatical

The Rabbinic Committee of the Sephardic Community produced this certificate 'For Whom it May Concern'. Moshe Chaim Deri, who makes his living as a farmer in Kfar Meiron, is observing the Biblical commandment of Shemitah, which requires him to leave his fields fallow for the year. Five Sephardic rabbis signed it. It would be hard to make ends meet and perhaps this man would use the certificate to claim some funds from charity.

EY.Safed.orphanage

This letter is directed to R' Palaggi in 1930. R' Maman represents an orphanage near Tzefat. He is concerned about some dishonesty with regard to funds that are designated for his institution and is writing even though he is bedridden. Written entirely in soletreo.

EY.Safed.postcard

Addressed entirely in old Arabic script to someone and his son Ibrahim (Avraham) possibly Hermes.

EY.Safed.PC message

Mailed from Tzefat in 1897. Kamuel Kohen Sefardi Tahor is writing about business matters. Shoes are to be sent which he will sell, and pay son Avraham for them. But they must be of good quality, not to thin or thick and with no holes.

EY.Hevron.Shador letter to Europe

This elaborate flowery letter from Hevron is sent by the community leaders to introduce their emissary, Moshe Yisroel Melamed. It bears names such as Franco & Romano, as well as the seal of the Sephardic Kollel. Hevron is the oldest site of Jewish living in Israel, dating back to the Bible. Jews braved wars, plagues, earthquakes & expulsions to maintain a Jewish presence here. Sepharadim arrived in 1540 and built the Avraham Avinu synagogue.

EY.Hevron.Rabbis to Wallach

This letter was sent in 1905 by the Sephardic community in Hevron. It is addressed to Dr. Moshe Wallach, director of the Sha'arei Tzedek hospital in Jerusalem. These five rabbis are requesting his help in setting up a hospital in Hevron. Signers include the famous R' Medini, R' Mani, R' Cario, and R' Kastil. There was an existing clinic established by Baghdadi families. It later came under the auspices of the Hadassah organization.

EY.Hevron.R' Medini

Shmuel Baruch Shulman forwarded this postcard from Austria to R' Chaim Chezkia Medini in Hevron. R' Medini, a world famous scholar, originated in Jerusalem, spent most of his life abroad, and returned to Hevron. when the local Rabbinic leaders, R' Mani & R' Franco died, he led the community until his death in 1904. Author of Sdei Chemed.

EY.Hevron.Medini.message

In awkward square script this message asks R' Medini to watch out for the writer's grandson in Hevron.

EY.Hevron.R' Mani

From an Iraqi family that moved to Hevron when he was a boy, R' Suleiman Menahem Mani grew up to be its chief rabbi. His last name, Mani, stands for Migeza Netzer Yishai meaning descended from King David. This letter was sent in 1919 to the council in Jerusalem regarding complaints about a teacher. His signature, and seal as chief rabbi, appear below.

EY.Hevron,Shekel receipt

The ubiquitous Zionist shekel receipt also showed up in Hevron. This one was issued to a Sephardic Jew there, R' Rachamim Hayim Hakohen. The massacre of nearly 70 Jews in 1929 caused the rest to leave. Jews didn't return after the '67 war.

EY.Tiberias.synagogue

Tiberias had been a major Jewish center until destroyed by the Byzantines. Sepharadim reached Tiberias after the expulsion, but Druze conquerors forced them out. Rabbi Chaim Abulafia of Turkey was invited to rebuild the community in 1742. The building shown here is known as the 'Sephardic Synagogue'.

EY.Tiberias.Kollel note

In 1911,R. Hayim Yissachar Abulafia issued this note as an I.O.U. to a member of his kollel in Tiberias, to be redeemed 'when there will be money in our account'. The Aboulafia family produced major rabbinic leaders going back to the original R. Hayim in the 1700s. The kollel funded families of professional scholars. These kollel notes circulated as unofficial paper money in the Jewish community.

EY.Tiberias.Rambam's grave

The great Rambam - Maimonides - was active mainly in Morocco and Egypt. He died in Egypt in 1204. Tradition says that, in accordance with his wishes, his body was brought to Tiberias and buried here. (An alternate tradition claims he is buried in Cairo.) This is a major pilgrimage and tourist site in Tiberias.

EY.Tiberias.lengthy receipt.Sephardic community

A handwritten receipt for 35 francs donated to the Sephardic community institutions under the name of R' Meir Baal Hanes. Written in 1909, it was sealed and signed with fancy signatures by four rabbis. Those include Maklouf Hakohen and David Raina.

EY.Tiberias.Emissary letter

Sent from Tiberias to Aleppo in 1845, this handwritten letter is a request for charity to support the Sephardic institutions. It is written in excessively flowery style. Eleven ! rabbis added their fancy Sephardic signatures. They include Hayim Abulafia & 3 others of that family, Moshe Simhon, Moshe Gigi, Rephael Hakohen,Yosef Malka, Rephael Maman, David Nachmad.

EY.Tiberias.Distribution of Halukah

This page lists the rabbis of Tiberias who studied in Yeshivat Etz Hayim. They subsisted on charity funds that arrived from abroad, in this case New York. The distribution was for 80 Egyptian piastres for one month and was called the Halukah. Each rabbi signed his name and seal to acknowledge receipt of the funds.

EY.Tiberias.Talmud Torah cover

This envelope was sent to New York City in 1921, no doubt to ask for charity. It is from Rabbi Refael Bibas, president, and founder, of the Talmud Torah school. The Bibas (originally Vivas) family of rabbis and physicians originated in Spain.

EY.Tiberias.mail to Italy

An envelope sent in 1883 from Tiberias to Modena, Italy. It is addressed in flowery Hebrew, 'Rashi' style, to the officers in charge of charitable funds so we can imagine what it was about. Modena was at one time a seat of scholarship and prosperous economic activity. Jews there were very supportive of Eretz Yisrael.

EY.Tiberias.mail from Tunis.Soletreo

Front of postcard mailed from Tunis to Tiberias in 1910.

EY.Tiberias.mail from Tunis message

Sent in 1910 from Tunisia to R' Meir Vaknin (1885-1975), Chief rabbi of Tiberias and head of the Sephardic community. Written in Soletreo, it discusses money matters and 'please keep an eye on my dear children'.

EY.Tiberias.card from Tunisia. Soletreo.transc

Transcription of Postcard message.

EY.Tiberias.book printing

This book on a 'minor' tractate of Talmud which contains supplementary Talmudic material regarding marriage. It was edited and published by R' Baruch Toledano in 1906. The Toledanos, originally from Spain, were a prominent rabbinic family.

EY.Jerusalem.4 synagogues

Sephardic refugees arrived in Jerusalem in the 1500s. They found a synagogue in use that had been established by the Ramban centuries before. But it was closed by the Sultan in 1586. They were first permitted to build a synagogue in the early 1600s. With adjacent buildings, it grew into a complex of four: Yochanan ben Zakkai, Eliyahu Hanavi, Istanbouli, and Emtzai.

EY.Jerusalem.Yochanan b. Zakai

This was the primary synagogue of the four. It was the site of official ceremonies, such as the installation of the Haham Bashi - chief Sephardic rabbi - of the city. The synagogues were destroyed under Jordanian occupation but have been fully refurbished since Israel gained control of the Old City during the Six Day War.

EY.Jerusalem.Rabbi council

This early card shows a meeting of rabbis in the old city of Jerusalem. Judging by their clothing, they are leaders of the Sephardic community.

EY.Jerusalem.Rabbinic decision

This Rabbinic decision of 1854 deals with the rights of dwelling and sustenance for someone who is traveling abroad on behalf of the community. It is signed by Rabbis Navon, Pardo, and Elyashar, famous leaders of the Sephardic community in Jerusalem.

EY.Jerusalem.Receipt

This is a receipt for the donation of 1000 gold francs to the Sephardic community. It was the bequest of someone whose burial was performed by the community. Signed in 1896 by Rabbis Navon, Suzein & Elyashar. Also signed and stamped by Haim Aron Valero, banker and community leader of the Sepharadim.

EY.Jrslm.Receipt.Transc

EY.Jerusalem.old city street

This card shows a scene from a street in the old city of Jerusalem. Judging by the clothing, the people pictured walking are Sephardic Jews.

EY.Jerusalem.Western wall

Older Sephardic Jews praying at the Kotel, the Western part of the Wall surrounding the Temple mount. Some Ashkenazic Jews also adopted the Sephardic style of clothing, with a striped robe and a sash at the waist.

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