VIRTUAL JEWISH MUSEUM

Polish coin Hebrew inscription

This coin was minted in the reign of Duke Mishko III the Elder 1181-1202. Persecution of Jews in Germany led to eastward migration to Poland. They brought with them experience in supplying and managing mints, as shown by Hebrew names on German coins. From 1170 - 1290 Jews managed the mints, and eventually taxes, royal monopolies, even weights and measures. The coins are thin and much lighter than previous ones, leading to enrichment of the Duke. This was an era of prosperity for Jews.

Wooden Synagogue Jeziory

The wooden synagogues of Poland were a distinctly Jewish architectural form. Masonry buildings needed government approval so Jews turned to readily available wood. These buildings developed in the 1500's - 1600's. They were plain on the outside but elaborately carved and painted inside. Many were still in use in the 20th century but hardly any survived World War Two. Jeziory is in the Grodno district of Belarus.

Wooden Synagogue.Gabin

Known as Gombin in Yiddish. Avraham Gombiner, author of the Magen Avraham commentary on the Shulchan Aruch, came from here. The town was half Jewish. The synagogue stood from 1710 until the Nazis burned it in 1939. Only 10% if its 2300 Jews survived.

Fortress Synagogue Wodzislav

Sometimes the government encouraged Jews to build strong synagogues. These were desired in locations that might be subject to enemy attack. The walls are several feet thick and reinforced, and the windows are high. A number of these synagogues survive today, usually converted to some other use. Wodzislav is near Czechoslovakia.

Tykocin Fortress Synagogue

The synagogue in Tykocin (called in Yiddish 'Tiktin') is another such example. Built in 1642, it suffered much abuse during the war. In the 1970's it was restored and is now a museum and tourist attraction. It is the building on the lower right in this souvenir postcard. The interior was elaborately painted with prayers in large letters that the congregation could recite right off the wall!

Synagogue Interior. Rzeszow

The city is pronounced "Zheshov" but Jews called it 'Reishe'. This view shows elaborate and typical furnishings. Four central pillars hold up the roof and highlight the Bima from which the Torah is read. Large posters display useful prayers. We can identify Psalm 67, said before Counting the Omer.

Zheshov Synagogue

Exterior

Great Synagogue. Tlomackie Street

When it opened in 1878, this was the largest synagogue in the world and one of the greatest Polish buildings of the 19th century. It is much more European and classic in its architecture. The synagogue was seen as a symbol of Judaism by the Nazis and they took great pleasure in blowing it up in May 1943, the final action in destroying the Warsaw Ghetto.

Great Synagogue postcard

The back of the postcard shows that it was mailed in September 1916. It was sent by a German soldier on active duty in the middle of World War I. Thousands of them were active in Poland, fighting Russian forces. They frequently found themselves in Jewish communities thus many similar cards show Jewish themes. No stamp was required. The cancellation shows the soldiers unit.

Nozyk Sunagogue Warsaw

Built in 1902 and named for its founder, this is the only Warsaw synagogue to survive the war. The Nazis used it, along with others, for a horse stable and storehouse. It was restored in 1983 and currently holds weekly Sabbath services for some 500 Warsaw Jews.

Rabbinic Verdict. Lublin

This Rabbinic letter, signed by the Rabbi of Lublin R' Noson Reifmann, settles a question of rights to a seat in the women's section of the synagogue. Seat # 31 belonged to the late Chaya Devorah Goldring. Her heirs now relinquish it to Mrs. Yonah Mandelbaum who has been using it recently. Dated Erev Shabbos p' Behaalotecha, 1903.

Students of Talmud Torah Augustow

Talmud Torah is the term for a Jewish religious school. We see some 85 boys, in coats and hats, and their bearded Rebbeim - teachers. Located in Northeast Poland, Augustow had a population of 4000 Jews before the war. The Nazis killed nearly all of them.

Heder Students.Eitz Chaim

The backstamp identifies this group as from the Eitz Chaim religious school in Kolo. We count 37 boys, all wearing matching school caps, and three rabbinic-looking teachers.

Jewish Girls in Public School

Before the introduction of Beis Yaakov schools, Jewish girls in Poland attended public schools. This is a photo of ‘class VII’ in a Polish elementary school. It appears to be an art class. About 37 girls, and a teacher, are pictured. About 30 of them signed the back of this photo. Not all are Jewish but names like Friedman, Wagschal, Sandler, Derschowitz, Fuchs, Spiegel, and Blatt, mixed with Poltenowna, Lasola, and Dwieyisko tell the story. The photo is dated 20 October 1933.

Talmud Torah. Lodz

This is the impressive Talmud Torah school building in Lodz. It dates from the 1870's. Lodz had the second largest Jewish community, after Warsaw. It was a major textile center in which the Jews played a significant role. On the eve of the war its Jewish population approached a quarter of a million, justifying school buildings of this size.. During the war Jews were forced to work in factories producing uniforms and supplies for the Nazis.

Lodz.Student ID

This hard-backed folder is a student I.D. card for Chaim Warsaw for the school year 1919-20. He is in 'class VI'. The school is the 'Male Jewish Gymnasium (high school) of the Society of Jewish High Schools. Chaim's picture is faint but it is tempting to see a Kippah on his head.

Advanced Talmudic Learning

This unused postcard was preprinted for the "Mesivta" a Yeshiva of advanced Talmudic learning in Warsaw.

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This is the Polish language side of the card.

Yeshivas Chachmei Lublin

R' Meir Shapiro founded this Yeshiva in Lublin in 1930. The students were of high caliber, and so was the building, which boasted 5 stories, central heating, indoor plumbing, a bakery, kitchen, dining rooms, library, shul, auditorium, a dormitory and a garden. The Nazis commandeered it in 1939 and burned the thousands of sefarim. It was used by the Medical school until 2003 when it was returned to the community and gradually restored. This postcard shows the original building.

Junior High School - Gymnasium

In Poland, 'gymnasium' was the term for a Junior High School, for students ages 13 to 16. This receipt is for payment by a student to the gymnasium in Lodz, member institution of the 'Society of Jewish Schools in Lodz'.

Makabi School Network

A wide variety of schools were available to the thousands of Polish students: the Orthodox Horev schools, Beth Jacob girls schools, Mizrachi Zionist Yavneh network, the pioneering Zionist Tarbut system, along with traditional Chadorim and Yeshivot. Makabi was another, very Hebrew oriented. In this letter from Tarnopol the leaders are asking for a better facility to house their many programs.

Report Card of Tarbut School

Tarbut was a network of secular Zionist schools, kindergarten through seminary. A quarter of students enrolled in Jewish schools were in Tarbut. As this report shows, they taught Hebrew and Bible too. Shmuel Feldman's grades are Good and Very Good, although singing was only Satisfactory. Berezne was a Ukrainian town that was part of Poland in 1925 when this report was issued.

Report Card of Tarbut School

This side of the card is in Polish.

Tarbut School.Warsaw.First Grade

This photo is identified on the back as 'First grade in the Tarbut school in Warsaw, in 'Shinena'(?) street. 1931. Teacher Tzivia Tenzer'. We see 15 boys, four girls, and their teacher in the middle. All sitting nicely, and wearing sweaters.

'Safah Berurah 'Report Card

The 'Safah Berurah Association' supervised the Jewish studies curriculum and promoted the study of Hebrew. This branch was in Levov. The card lists Torah, Rashi, Tanach, History, Talmud, and Hebrew Literature, although Joseph Puter took only some of those courses in 1934.

Safah Berurah Report Card

This image shows the seal of the school at the bottom.

Jewish Teacher Training.Grodno

Lea Milovitz is a student at the Tarbut Teacher's Seminary in Grodno. Her I.D. card is dated 1931.

Teaching Hebrew in Kletzk

The Tarbut school in Kletzk recommends Sarah Ganzbush as an excellent Hebrew & general studies teacher. Zionist youth groups Hapoel Hatzair and Tzeirai Tziyon united to form 'Hitachdut' which promoted labor, socialism, Ivrit, and settling in E. Yisrael. They became the Mapai party in Israel. Kletzk's Jews were massacred or sent to concentration camps by August 1942.

Principal of Tushia school. Zabno

The 'Tushiya' schools were another group of Mizrachi type schools, religious and Zionist in orientation. This card describes Lipa Marmorstein as a principal of such a school.

Principal Tushia School.Zabno messag

He is an accomplished teacher of Hebrew (and writes in formal Hebrew on his postcard stationery) who finds himself needing to relocate, for political reasons - the government is after him. He is asking if he can make a living teaching Hebrew 'in America'.

Machzikeh Limud Society

This society was established to promote the study of Torah among working class Jews. There are 10 pages of rules. The society operated in Nowy Sacz, commonly known as Sanz, and was strictly Orthodox in its values and goals. Published in 1919. Sanz was a Hasidic center, associated with Sanz, Bobov and Klausenberg dynasties.

Surviving Synagogue.Auschwitz

This is the only surviving synagogue in the town renamed Auschwitz by the Germans. It is called the Chevra Lomdei Mishnayot Synagogue, that of the 'Mishna Learning Society'. It was restored in 2000 and is visited to learn about Jewish life there before the Holocaust.

Postcard from Oswiecim = Auschwitz

Long before the Nazis came, Oswiecim was a Polish shtetl with 8,000 Jews - more than half the town. This postcard written in Yiddish in 1905 to a son in Vienna symbolizes the ordinary rhythms of Jewish life in this typical town, before the Nazis changed its name and made it a symbol of horror and inhumanity.

Postcard from Oswiecim = Auschwitz

Message side of the card, in Yiddish.

Hatzefirah Hebrew Newspaper

This paper became a daily, published in Warsaw from 1875 - 1931. It contained news, politics, information about Israel (Palestine), literature, and advertisements. Right under the masthead are the times for sunup and sundown, useful for prayer times and other observances. There were a number of Jewish periodicals published in Poland.

Rabbinic Scholar Postcard

This card shows 'Types of People in Krakow and Galicia'. We see a scholar in beard, payos, and large yarmulka poring over a thick volume, likely Talmud. Producing postcards with photos was new technology in 1901 when this card was printed in Krakow. It was mailed in 1902 with hardly any room for a message - the picture was the thing.

Men's clothing.Lodz

Jewish Male clothing in Poland. These men are wearing a long coat, a vest, and a typical hat. The caption labels them as Lodz types: a glazier and a merchant. The postmark and stamp are Russian since the area was dominated by them when this was written in 1909.

Women's Clothing

The caption reads 'Types in Russian Poland. That refers to Byelorus, northeastern Poland controlled by Russia. They are dressed warmly and we see snow on the roof.

Jewish Clothing

More examples of typical male clothing, including pants tucked into high boots, against the snow and muddy streets.

Galicianer Jews

Known as 'Little Poland', Galicia included southeast Poland and Northwest Ukraine (although it changed hands many times). lt was a major center of Jewish thought and creativity. Haskalah and Zionism were influential but Hassidism was widespread, including dynasties of Belz, Sanz, and Ruzhin. This card pictures visitors to Karlsbad Czechoslovakia, captioned: Spa guests from Galicia.

Market Square - Rynyk Rzeszow

The town market square, called the Rynyk, was the gathering place for merchants, peddlers, traders, and of course shoppers. Horse drawn wagons full of merchandise line the perimeter. Some of the shoppers are wearing traditional Jewish dress. The shop on the right shows sign in Polish and Yiddish. Later, the Nazis would use the squares as assembly areas for gathering and deporting Jews. This one is in Rzeszow.

Market Square. Rynyk Lodz

This square is in Lodz. The caption reads 'Lodz Old Market. There is an interesting mix of clothing with traditional Jewish clothing and some dressed in contemporary styles. This card was mailed in March 1916 by a German soldier on duty with forces in Poland. Many cards of Jewish interest were sent from here back home, sometimes with derogatory remarks.

Market Square Rynyk. Stryj

This is the large square of Stryj, in southern Poland. Several of the shop signs are legible and we can read Jewish names like Lipa Fried, Isak Goldblatt, and M. Schnur.

Polish Market

Shoppers and children in typical Jewish clothing inspect goods at the market.

Wedding Invitation

This invitation is for a wedding to be held Saturday night, last day of Chanukah 1938 in Lodz, at the home of the Bride. Her family is related to the Alecsender Rebbe. The groom is from Warsaw, the family name is Levin.

Ketubah.Marriage Contract

Children's Prayers

Warsaw was a center of printing and publishing for Poland and Russia. The brothers Lewin-Epstein established a printing house in 1890 which is still active today in Israel. In 1939, more than a thousand workers were engaged in Hebrew printing in Warsaw. This Bencher, with laws and translations in Yiddish, was printed there.

Blessing the Children

A wide variety of cultural scenes are found on postcards of the early 1900's. This one shows 2 children who have been brought to the Rebbe for a blessing. The Yiddish lines give the blessing: Serve your Creator and enlighten yourselves with His Torah. Notice the Rebbe's clothing.

Lashes before Yom Kippur

This scene shows a custom of symbolic lashing on the Eve of Yom Kippur. The penitent is lightly stroked 39 times with used Tefillin straps, while verses begging for G-d's mercy and forgiveness are recited.

Receipt for One Rooster.Lublin

The custom of Kapparot involves selecting a kosher fowl, holding it over one's head, and reciting the formula: May this bird go to it's death while I go on to a long, good, and peaceful life. Afterwards, the bird would be donated to charity to provide holiday meals for the poor. Nowadays, some people use money instead. This receipt was proof of payment for 1 rooster. Opole near Lublin had 4000 Jews on the eve of WWII. They were deported and wiped out.

Kapparot on Yom Kippur Eve

This postcard illustrates the custom of Kapparot. A hen for a woman and a rooster for a man.

Kapporot in our day

Rabbinic Leader Chofetz Chaim .Radin

Poland produced many scholars and leaders, some world famous. R' Yisroel Meir Kagan , known as the Chofetz Chaim for his book on Lashon Hara, wrote a code of law updating the Shulchan Aruch. His 'Mishna Berurah' is studied worldwide to this day. He lived from 1838 - 1933. This is his personal stationary, probably addressed by his wife or secretary.

Mir Yeshiva Kollel

The Mir yeshiva was established in 1813, in the Grodno district of Belorussia. The first 20th century Kollel was established there with 10 students. A Kollel is an advanced Talmudic seminary for married students. It was supported by wealthy donors from abroad; one is mentioned on the envelope. Students and their teachers escaped to Palestine, and to Brooklyn by way of Shanghai, to found new branches.

Yeshiva Telshe Kollel

The Lithuanian yeshivas became the model for most non-Chassidic yeshivas. Telshe ('Telz') was highly regarded for its strong organization and forward thinking attitudes about educating young men, and women. A kollel and seminary were established. Jennie Miller supported this one too. They transplanted to Cleveland Ohio in the midst of WWII.

Yeshiva Bet Talmud.Kelme

The 'Talmud Torah of Kelm' as the Yeshiva was called was founded by R. Simcha Zissel Ziv, known as The Elder of Kelm. It focused on Mussar - the refinement of personal character traits. Of course Talmud was studied and remarkably so were geography, math, and Russian. At its peak it had about 35 accomplished married students. Jennie Miller supported them too. The Nazis murdered them all in June of 1941.

Sadagora Hassidut.

The Ruzhin Dynasty of Chasidic rebbes begun by R' Yisroel Friedman produced 6 branches. While Sadagura is in the Ukraine, it had many followers in Poland and the Rebbes sometimes led from there. This Palatial residence and synagogue was built in Sadagora from which the rebbes led their Chassidim in lavish yet mystical style. The reigning rebbe moved to Vienna at the outbreak of WWI. After the Anchloss of Austria the leadership moved to Tel Aviv.

Hassidism.Bobova Poland

Bobova became the seat of this Chassidus under Rebbe BenZion Halberstam, a grandson of the Divrei Chaim of Sanz. Known by his book 'Kedushas Tzion', he composed many beautiful melodies - Niggunim. He perished in the Holocaust; son Shlomo established a center in Boro Park Brooklyn after the war. This envelope is from the Rebbe's personal secretary, Chaskel Rottenberg.

Yiddish Language

Yiddish was the primary Jewish language in Poland. It was expressed in publications, song, Theater, etc. This postcard is written in Yiddish. It is postmarked Konskowola and addressed to Tel Aviv.

Yiddish Language

The message side of the card. Mailed 21 March 1938.

Hebrew Language

Knowledge of Hebrew became more widespread as the effects of Haskala and then of Zionism made their impression. This card is written in Hebrew. The sender is Mr. Scheinfinkel who deals in books and antiquarian items. He is writing from Warsaw to Vienna in 1903 regarding certain rare books that were requested.

Hebrew Language

This is the message side of the card in Hebrew. At the top is Mr. Scheinfinkel's business stamp.

Hebrew Language

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Jews Fight for Poland

Jews fought in Poland’s armies throughout their history. Some became officers and even legends. They helped Poland fight for independence from Russia in 1919 - 1921. During WWII 200,000 Jews fought: In the Free Polish Army, as Partisans, and in all-Jewish units. 5,000 were officers. Here are original photographs of two Jews serving in the Polish army on the eve of WWII. On the back of the smaller one is written Hebrew and Yiddish: “An eternal memorial. Moshe Isar Platt in the Polish army”

Holiday Wishes to Palestine

This card was sent from Lodz to Meah Shearim in Jerusalem. A son is wishing the Einfeld's a happy and Kosher Passover. It is the week before Passover 1937. They express the hope that all will soon be able to come to the Holy Land to live.

Holiday Wishes to Palestine

The parents who are addressed in the letter rent a room in one of the old homes of 'Batei Varshaw' in Meah Shearim. They are probably retired, have simple needs, and want to spend their last years in Jerusalem.

Zionist Shekel

The 'Shekel' was really a receipt for payment of dues to the Zionist movement. It entitled one to vote for delegates to the Zionist Congress. They were printed for hundreds of localities - this one says Poland in Hebrew. Punched through the paper is the Hebrew year - 5685 (1925).

Zionist shekel.1933.front

This Shekel is dated 23 May 1933. It was issued to Avraham Kirshenboim. Read 'Polania' in Hebrew in the upper left corner. Holders of this Shekel were eligible to vote for delegates to the Zionist Congress.

shekel.1933.back

The back of the receipt states in Hebrew, Yiddish, and English the 'Basel Program': The aim of Zionism is to create for the Jewish People a Home in Palestine secured by public law.

Revisionist Zionism

Moshe Herzog contributed 100 zlotys to the Keren Tel Chai fund. This supported youth groups affiliated with the Beitar Revisionist movement. We see evidence of Zionist activity in 1936.

Poland.Mizrachi youth

Tze'irei Mizrachi was a youth group affiliated with the Religious Zionist party. It was founded in Lodz, Poland in 1918 by Yitzchak Rivkind and soon had chapters all over. This envelope was sent from the Warsaw chapter to Mr. Rivkind himself only 3 months after the founding, in 1918.

Poland.Mizrachi youth letter

The letter, written in beautiful cursive Hebrew, reports to him on efforts in Warsaw to set up activities that will appeal to the ‘young Chareidi’ (fervently pious) community. Among their goals: a) support Jewish and general scholarship b) promote knowledge of Hebrew language c) promote the desire to live in the Land of Israel d) remain concerned about the welfare of Jews in the Diaspora.

Visa to Palestine

The Union of Democratic Zionists, 'Ichud' of Lodz is writing to the branch in Warsaw on behalf of Halina Rubinowicz. It is December 1948 and she wants a visa to Israel. Five members signed the request. Ichud was an umbrella organization uniting various Zionist factions and parties for the cause of a Jewish state. It operated from 1945 - 49.

Shipping to Palestine

This flyer from the 1930's advertises in Yiddish its services of shipping belongings to Palestine. They will arrive in 10 - 12 days and can even travel on the same ship you do! Apparently there was money to be made in this enterprise.

Shipping to Palestine

Inside of flyer

Shipping to Palestine

Back of flyer. Letter of recommendation in Polish.

Departure for Palestine.

The Central Zionist Office in Warsaw facilitated travel to Palestine. They sent this travel confirmation from Warsaw to Czestochova on September 10 1935. "You are registered to travel to Eretz Yisrael on the ship Yerushalayim which sails from Trieste on September 18th. We will notify you about schedules, cost of baggage and transportation to the ship".

Beware of Thieves!

Posted on the Jewish Agency office in Warsaw: Coming to Warsaw (or Levov) beware of thieves and tricksters circulating in the halls ... Do not engage with these people; they will take your last cent...turn exclusively to the agents at the office desks who are carrying out their official duties. The Central Office in Warsaw.

Beware of Thieves! Yiddish

The same warning appeared on the back in Yiddish.

Departure to Palestine.back

This specially printed postcard in Hebrew indicates that there was a steady amount of traffic between Poland and Palestine. Even the metered postage imprint shows the Hebrew name of the Zionist office.

Emigration Certificate to Palestine

From 1920 until 1947, the British had full control over Palestine, including emigration to it. From time to time they put restrictions on Jewish emigration (in order to appease Arabs), making these certificates highly sought after. This one, issued to Chaim Lichtshein and wife and daughter, was early, in 1924. Actually the certificate included him, his wife, his son, daughter-in-law and granddaughter (but 2 of the pictures have been removed). They left Warsaw on September 29 with $4000.

Emigration Certificate to Palestine

Here we see Hersh, Miriam, and Sheindele their daughter. The parents photos of Chaim and Malka who were in their 60's have been removed. And the inscription reads: A traveler without this certificate will get no material of moral support from any Zionist agency.

Emigration Certificate to Palestine

Here are all the details in Hebrew.

WIZO

Zionist wives founded the 'Women's International Zionist Organization' in 1920 to improve conditions in Palestine, especially for women and children. They dealt with education, home economics, health and social services. There were fundraising branches in many European cities. This branch in Pinsk took a farewell photo as their leader, Mrs. Rabinovitch was making Aliyah in August 1933.

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Hungary.Synagogue

Jewish life in Hungary dates back to antiquity. Their synagogues are visual proof of their prosperity and devotion. Many of them featured a very liberal style of Judaism. This one is the Dohaney synagogue in Budapest - largest in Europe. Of the 800,000 Jews in Hungary's border on the eve of the war, 600,000 lost their lives.

Hungary.Synagogue

This synagogue in Pecs was the only one to survive World War II.

Orthodox Community

The Orthodox community in Hungary maintained its own educational and welfare institutions. Hungary suffered from economic collapse after WWI and again after the Great Depression of 1929. This coupon, issued by the Orthodox Community in Miskolcz, was a ration ticker of 6 'cents' valid for 1/2 kilogram of meat in 1931.

Hungary.Photo.Forced Labor workers

Under increasing German anti-Semitic influence, Jewish soldiers were forced out of the army by 1941 and into work battalions. This group was apparently not yet suffering the abuses that would torment them and kill a large percentage. They are wearing military hats but civilian clothes. they are also wearing distinguishing armbands on their left arms.

Hungarian armband.labor 001 (2)

This is an armband worn by a Jew in a Hungarian forced-labor battalion.

Hungary.Laborers ID Tag

This is the ID tag of a Jewish forced laborer. Such conscripts were considered unfit or untrustworthy for military service. The letters 'ZS / MUSZ' stand for Zsido Munkaszolgalatos meaning Jew / Labor Service. Below is a unit number. Conscripts were generally between 18 & 42 but are known as old as 71. 16,000 were captured by Russia but only 3500 returned home!

Hungary.Forced Labor.I.D. Card 001 (2)

Bela Katon's I.D. card. The big red 'Z/S' stands for Zsid = Jew. Young men of enlistment age had to carry it. Although it has military style entries, it is stamped inside MUNKASZOLGALATOS meaning Labor Service and was held by members of those units.

Forced Labor. Illustrated postcard

This unused postcard shows images of forced laborers at work. The caption in Hungarian reads 'Work Service 1940'. There is no hint of the miserable conditions or of the high death rate in these work battalions.

Hungary.Laborer Writes Home

After Hungary entered the war against the Soviet Union, 50,000 of these Jewish laborers were sent along with the troops to work clearing mines and in military construction. 80% of them perished. Imre Ehrenthal writes home 1 October 1940: Dear All עמ"ש ...Unfortunately we'll be far apart for Rosh Hashana. I wish everyone a happier New Year than the previous one. 'Zs.Kmsz.Psag' = Jewish Military labor Service Command.

Hungary.Forced Labor.to Goldner

Sent from a Jew attached to 'Jewish Labor Battalion 201/64' which is imprinted in purple at the top. Sent to ? Goldner in Budapest on 8 September 1940. Poorly clothed and fed, the men worked under brutal conditions and many died.

Hungary.Travel Permit

'Gyorgi Neuman Jewish Labor Service of Szeged has applied for travel and I'm authorizing it'. The permit is signed by the mayor of Szeged. Conscripts who worked in cities instead of the battlefront fared much better, despite hardships. Dated 24 October 1944. Printed in Hungarian and handwritten in Russian.

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62.Golan heights UN

LATVIA.teacher I.D.

Russia annexed Latvia, but the Germans occupied it in 1941. Of the 94,000 Jews who lived there, fewer than 5,000 survived. Sofia Mikalson was a member of the Hebrew teacher association 'Hamoreh'. This is her membership card dated January 1933.